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Steam and Hot Water Fitters^ 
Text Book 



Prepared for the Steam and Hot Water Heating Course 

at the New York Trade School, with Supplementary 

Chapters on House Heating, Specifications 

and Surface Estimating* 



by/ 
THOS E. McNeill. 



ILLUSTRATED 




PUBLISHED ^^i'iZIL,J'_'):i::J^^\\ Q^ ^ W 

DAVID WILLIAMS, *^ J ^ 

232-238 William Street, New York. 




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Copyrighted, 1896, 

by 
DAVID WILLIAMS. 



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10 

one of the oldest, best know7i and most highly esteemed mem- 
bers of the Master Steaffi and Hot Water Fitters^ Associ- 
ation of the United States, to zvhose co7itinued efforts the 
establishment of the Department of Steam and Hot Water 
Fitting at the New York Trade School ivas largelv due. 
This Book is Dedicated 
by 

Cbc Huthor. 



CONTENTS. 



Chapter I. 

Page. 

Tools, Fittings and Pipe, 3 

ChaptePv II. 
General Questions on Heating. .... 16 

Chapter III. 
Low Pressure Steam, 21 

Chapter IV. 
Two-Pipe Steam Heating, . , . . . 32 

Chapter V. 
Single Pipe, Low Pressure Steam Heating, . . 45 

Chapter VI. 
Indirect Steam Heating, 58 

Chapter VII. 
Hot Water Heating, 63 

Chapter VIII. 
High Pressure Steam Heating, .... 73 

Chapter IX. 
High Pressure Steam Heating {Concluded}, . . 75 



Chapter X. page. 

High and Low Pressure Steam Heating and 

Power Plant, , . 93 

Chapter XI. 

High and Low Pressure Steam Heating and 

Power Plant (Co?icZ?idecZ), . . . .106 

Chapter XII. 

Power Fan or Blower System of Steam Heating 

and Ventilating, 110 

Chapteii XIII. 
Design, Estimate, Specification. . . . . 118 

Chapter XIV. 
Dwelling House Heating, 127 

Chapter XV. 
A Successful Heating Job, 132 



PREFACE. 

Early in the summer of 1894 I was invited by the Advis- 
ory Committee of the New York Trade School in the 
Steam and Hot Water Fitting Department to deliver two 
lectures a week to the class, for twelve weeks of the course, 
and also to give such aid and advice as might assist in suc- 
cessfully inaugurating the work. Having decided to un- 
dertake the work, I discovered that no text book had ever 
been prepared, and that the course therefore would have 
to be created. It was with a view to meeting this de- 
ficiency that the lectures were prepared, which after de- 
livery were published in The Metal Worker, and now 
appear herewith in book form. It is believed that these 
lectures will be particularly appreciated by those who wish 
to master the principles of steam and hot water heating. 
The definitions in the beginning deal with the appliances, 
and little by little the scholar is led on until at the close he 
is told how to figure surfaces and lay out plans and install 
heating apparatus, with all necessary piping. In a word, 
the whole subject of steam and hot water heating is cov- 
ered in a simple way. and it is believed the lectures in the 
form of a text book will prove of value to all who wish to 
acquire information in this department. While primarily 
addressed to young students, the text book will be found 
of great advantage to those in other lines of trade who 
wish to take up steam and hot water heating. 

Thomas E. McNeill. 

New York, June 22, 1S96. 



CHAPTER I. 
TOOLS, FITTINGS AND PIPE. 

Question 1. What are the names and applications of 
the various hand tools used in steam and hot water heating 
work? 

Answer. Tools.— The names of the tools used in steam 
and hot water fitting are : Rpe cutters (Fig. 1) for cutting 





U zi 



Fig, S.^Tap and Dies, 



Fig, l.—Pipe 
Cutter, 



Fig, 4. — Common 
Pipe Tongs, 




Fig, 2. — Stock and Dies, 

off pipe ; stocks and dies for threading pipes (Figs. 2 and 
3), usually from % inch diameter up to 3 inches or more. 
The usual thread is standard right hand, but a left hand 
thread is often used. There are plain or standard tongs 
(Figs. 4 and 5), a different size being used for each size of 



4 STEAM AND HOT WATER 

pipe. All those of special make are adjustable (Fig. 7) for 
use with different sizes of pipe. Others for larger sizes of 
pipe are called chain tongs, or wrenches (Fig. 6). There 
are many kinds of tongs and wrenches manufactured. 




Fig, 6. — Chain Tongs, 





<^ 




Fig, 5.^Coil 
Pipe Tongs, 



Fig, 7, —Ad- 
justable 
Pipe Tongs 



Fig, S,^Adjustable Wrenches, 



Monkey wrenches of various sizes, adjustable wrenches 
(Fig. 8), hammers, chisels, files, etc. ; pipe vises, swivel and 
angle pipe vises and hinged pipe vises for large sizes (Fig. 
9) ; combination vises, pipe and bench, or machinist work, 
swivel vise and others, ratchet drill (Fig. 10), etc. (Fig. 11). 



FITTERS' TEXT BOOK. 5 

Q, 2. What are the names of the principal machine 
tools used in cutting and threading pipe, tapping holes, etc. ? 

A, Machine Tools. — Pipe cutting and threading ma- 
chines made by different manufacturers from J^ inch to 2 
and up to 12 or 15 inches. 

Q. 3. What are the names of the fittings in general use 
of all kinds? 




Fig. ^.^ Large Pipe Vise. 

A, Elbows —The principal fittings are elbows of all 
sizes (Fig. 14) and reducing elbows (Fig. 15). These are 
used to change the direction of main pipe or branches, 
with an easy turn ; 45-degree elbows (Fig. 16) of all sizes 
are used to change direction to angle of 45 degrees, and in 
combination with other fittings to make easy turns in any 
direction. There are elbows with a side outlet. 



STEAM AND HOT WATER 

Tees.— Tees (Fig. 17) of all sizes, also reducing tees 
(Fig. 18), with outlets both on the run (Fig. 19) and the 
side (Fig. 20) ; these are used to take out a branch supply and 
at the same time to continue the direction of main either of 
the same size or less. 

CROSSES.—Crosses (Fig. 21) of various sizes of outlets, 
also reducing crosses, are sometimes used for continuing the 




Fig. 11,^ Center Bit 



Fig. lO.^Baichet with Drill 




Fig, 12,— 'Return Bend Wrenches, 

run of main in the same direction and taking out two sup- 
ply outlets at the same time. 

Return Bends.— Return bends are used of all sizes 
from % inch up to 4 inches ; they are made close (Fig. 22) 
and open (Fig. 23), the first with web between, the latter 
without. 

Flange Unions.— Flange unions (Fig. 24) are made of 
all sizes from % i^ch up to 12 inches and are used chiefly 



fitters' text book. 



Fig. 13— Pipe Pliers. 





Fig. 15,^ Reducing Elbows. 





Fig. 14..^ Elbow. Fig, 16.— 45-Z>esrree Elbow. 





Fig. 11.— Tee. Fig. 1'^.— Reducing Tees, 





Fig. 19.- Reducing Tees on Run. 



Fig. 20. '^Reducing 

Tee on Outlet. 



8 STEAM AND HOT WATER 

to connect up large pipes or where the pipes to be connected 
cannot be sprung. 

Bushings. — Bushings (Figs. 25 and 26) are made of all 
sizes from % inch to 12 inches, and are used for reducing 
the sizes of pipes where fittings for the purpose cannot be 
obtained, thus making two joints instead of one, as with 
reducing fittings. 

Reducing Coupling.— Reducing couplings (Fig. 27), from 
3^ inch to 12 inches, are used for the same general purpose. 





Fig. 22.— Close 
Beturn Bend 




Fig. 21.— Cross. 




Fig. 2i, — Flange 
Union, 



Fig. 23. ~ Open Beturn Bend. 



Y-Branches. — r's (Fig. 28) are made of all sizes from 
3^ inch to 6 inches, and are usefully and advantageously em- 
ployed, particularly in hot water or steam work, giving an 
easy change of direction of pipe. 

Offsets. — Offsets are made of sizes from % inch to 6 
inches, with offsets 4 inch, 6 inch and 8 inch. 

Caps and Plugs.— -Caps and plugs (Fig. 29) are made of 
all sizes from J^ inch to 12 inches, and are used for closing 
the ends of pipes and outlets of fittings. 

Lock Nuts. — Lock nuts are of all sizes and are generally 
used for making joints on long threads with some form of 
packing. 



fitters' text book. 





Fig. 25,— Bushings, 



Fig. 26.— Reducing Tee with. 
Bushing. 





Fig,2'6.— Y 'Fitting or Y-Tee. Fig. 27, -^Reducing Couplings, 







Tapped Plug. Cap. Plug. 

Fig, 29, — Cap and Plugs, 



Fig. 30. — Union. 






Fig. Si. —Plain Fig, S2,— Eight Fig. 33.— Shoulder Fig, 34. 
Coupling, and Left Nipple, Close 

Coupling, Nipple, 



10 STEAM AND HOT WATER 

Unions.— Unions (Fig. 30) are made of sizes from J^ inch 
to 4 inches, and are used to connect up pipes without spring, 
and can be easily taken down again. 

Couplings. — Couplings are of three kinds, plain (Fig. 31), 
tapped right hand ; ribbed on outside, usually tapped right 
and left (Fig. 32), and reducing couplings (Fig. 27), men- 
tioned before. The plain are generally used and come on 
the ends of pipes. Right and left are used to make up 
joints where ample spring can be obtained. 

Flanges. — Cast iron single flanges are generally used 
for rests or supports. 

Nipples. — Nipples are of two kinds, called shoulder (Fig. 
33) and close (Fig. 34) nipples, and are threaded right, or 
right and left hand. The shoulder nipples usually range 
from 2 inches to 63^ inches long, depending on size. The 
close from 3^ inch to 4 inches diameter, and from IJ^ inches 
to 5 inches in length. 

Ceiling and Floor Plates.— Ceiling plates are made 
from J^ inch to 4 inches. Floor plates from 3^ inch to 4 
inches. The first are used around pipes passing up through 
ceilings to close and protect the opening around pipes. The 
last are placed around the pipes where passing through 
floors, etc., as a finish and protection. 

Branch Tees. — Branch tees (Fig. 35) are cast iron pipes 
with tapped outlets on one side, varying in number, sizes 
and distance apart, with outlets of different sizes on ends, 
and sometimes outlets on the back or side for special pur- 
poses. They are used for making wall circulation coils, 
with spring pieces of pipe to take up the expansion, and are 
called, according to arrangement, miter or corner coils. 

Hook Plates.— Hook plates (Fig. 36), ring plates and 
expansion plates are all used for supporting the pipes of wall 
coils, and are usually fastened to wooden strips made fast 
to the wall. 

Q. 4. Are there many special fittings made? If so, 
what are their names and for what purposes used ? 

A, Eccentric Fittings — Eccentric fittings are not com- 



FITTERS' TEXT BOOK. 



11 




Fig. S5.— Man' 

ifold or 
Branch Tee, 





Expansion Single Cast Iron 
Plate. Hook Strap. 

Plate. 
Fig. S6,—ffook Plates for Coils. 





Fig, S7. ^Eccentric Brass Globe Yalve Iron Body Globe Stop 
Coupling, Cut Open. Valve with Yoke. 

Fig, SS.— Globe Valve. 



12 STEAM AND HOT WATER 

inonly used, but are of special value. Ecceniric Lees and 
couplings (Fig. 37) may be used in the steam supply mains 
and other pipes, as they permit of a level bottom in the 
main pipe and a clear and prompt relief of the water of con- 
densation. Division tees also permit a direct connection of 
two return water pipes in one line. Double branch elbows 
are also of use. 

§.5. Of what material is the pipe generally used in 
a heating apparatus made ? How is it made ? Is cast iron 
pipe ever used for mains or circulations ? 

A, Pipe. — The pipe formerly used in some classes of 
hot water heating, and some even now, was made of cast 
iron ; but it was heavy and slow in transmitting the heat, 
but now in nearly all house work wrought iron pipe is 
used. Occasionally in factories cast iron pipe is now used 
for radiating the heat from steam, but the supply mains 
are usually of wrought iron. In almost all other cases 
wrought iron pipe is used for mains, risers, returns, etc., 
but cast iron is largely used for radiators. 

Q. 6. What sizes are usually made or kept in stock? 
What are the various thicknesses ? 

A, Sizes of Pipe. — The sizes of wrought iron pipe kept 
on hand vary from ^ inch to 12 inches or even 15 inches, 
and vary in thickness from 0.068 inch up to 0.366 inch — 
1-inch being 0.134, 2-inch, 0.154, 3-inch, 0.217, 4-inch, 0.237, 
5-inch, 0.259, 6-inch, 0.280, 8-inch, 0.322. 

Q. 7. Is there any pipe made of extra thickness, and for 
what purpose used ? 

A, Extra Strong Pipe. — Extra strong pipe is made of 
regular sizes from % inch to 4 inches diameter. It is used 
for extra heavy pressures, or where liable to rapid deterio- 
ration, as connections around boilers for water supply and 
blow off. 

Q. 8. What is the mode of measuring or designating the 
various sizes of steam pipes ? Also of boiler tubes ? 



fitters' text book. 



^ 



A, Pipes and Tube Measure. — The mode of measure 
ing steam and water pipe is by its interior diameter. 
Boiler tubes are by the outside diameter. 

Q, 9. What are the names of the different styles of 
valves used, and how best utilized ? Also of check valves, 
and how used? Safety and other valves ? 

A. Valves. — The valves most used on all main steam 
pipes and around the boiler are either globe (Fig. 38) or 
angle (Fig. 39) valves ; sometimes gate valves (Fig. 40), which 






Brass Ang-le 
Valve Cut 
Open. 



Brass Opposite Angle 
Valve. 



Angle Radiator Yalve 
with Union Outlet. 



Fig, S9,— Angle Valves. 



are slowly gaining favor ; on the bottom of risers, globfi 
valves ; around the radiators, chiefly globe and angle or 
** opposite angle " valves, a special make ; gate valves on all 
hot or cold water pipes. 

Check Valves.— Swing check valves (Figs. 41 and 42) 
are deemed best on the returns to the boiler, pumps, and all 
pipes conveying water ; for all ordinary purposes the com- 
mon globe checks (Figs. 43 and 44) answer very well. ' 

Q» 10. What are the names of the devices used for hang- 
ing or supporting pipes in position, allowing for expansion 
and con'-^'action ? 



14 



STEAM AND HOT WATER 



A. Hangers. — Pipes are supported by hangers oi various 
special designs, for ease of adjustment and connection, with 
freedom of motion for the expansion and contraction of the 
pipes they support. Various means in the past have been 
used, such as straps, chain, etc. 

Q. 11. What are the different modes used in making up 
joints when connecting the ends of two or more pipes? 
What materials are used for special joints? 





Fig, 41. — Iron Body 
Swing Check Valve, 



Fig, 43. — Common 
Brass Check Valve, 



Fig. 40 —Brass 
Gate Valve, 





Fig. 42.— Brass 

Swing Check Valve 

Cut Open, 



Fig. 44. — Brass 
Vertical Check 
Valve. 



A, Joints. — Different means have oeen used in making 
up joints. When the threads are good, a little linseed oil 
may be enough, or plumbago and oil, or red lead and oiL 
In making up flange unions the joints are made up some- 
times with rubber ; again with asbestos paper, usudurian, 
copper, or canvas, oil and red lead. The gaskets are of 
endless variety. 

[Fig. 45 is a shop interior showing fitters' benches made 
from pipe with pipe vises.] 



fitters' text book. 



15 




16 stea:.i axd hot water 

CHAPTER 11. 

GENERAL QUESTIONS ON HEATING. 

Question 1. What means and devices are generally used 
for heating dwellings, stores and large buildings of all kinds 
at the present time ? 

Answer, Open fires, stoves, hot air furnaces, low 
pressure and high pressure steam and hot water. 

Q 2. Which are considered best, all things duly con- 
sidered ? 

A. Low pressure steam or hot water. 

Q. 3. How do these compare in first cost ana ease of 
management ? 

A. The first cost of the hot water apparatus is generally 
higher ; there is little if any difference in the management, 
as they are both intended to be nearly automatic ; both re- 
quire care and attention in firing. 

Q, 4. To what special cases are such best adapted ? 

A, In variable or moderate climates steam seems best 
adapted as its circulation and supply can be increased or 
diminished in less time, and it is more promptly responsive 
to any sudden requirements. In steadily cold or uniform 
climates hot water answers all purposes, for, while it 
needs more time to circulate and thus increase the radiating 
power, it is more even and maintains an uniform tempera- 
ture longer. 

Q. 5. How are these two systems best applied to their 
varied uses? 

A. (1 . ) By means of radiators placed in the rooms to be 
heated ; this is called direct radiation, (2.) By a combiaation 
called direct-indirect, where the radiators are placed in the 



fitters' text book. 17 

rooms and a fresh supply is brought in from the outer air 
by means of ducts near to and connected with the base of 
the radiators. The air is there warmed and rising up passes 
around the radiator pipes, then enters the room. Also by 
direct heat from the radiators. (3.) By indirect radiation, 
where the radiators are placed usually in the basement of 
the house and inclosed in boxes or chambers ; air from 
without is allowed to flow through the heated radiators, 
then through the ducts, made of tin or galvanized iron, to 
the various rooms requiring heat, the inflow into the room 
being regulated by registers and at its entrance into the cold 
air ducts by dampers. The circulation of the air is caused 
by its being expanded or rarefied by the heat, and thus 
made lighter ; it then rises up through the flues. This flow 
is often quickened by positive or mechanical means, such as 
fans, etc. 

Q. 6. How are these radiators supplied with steam or 
hot water ? 

A, By means of a boiler or generator placed, usually, in 
the cellar, and connected with the radiators by steam sup- 
ply and water return pipes for the steam apparatus and 
water circulating main pipes and returns for the water 
apparatus. In both cases these are connected by branch 
pil)es to each radiator or coil. 

Q. 7. What is steam, and how produced for use in 
steam heating ? 

A, Steam is the vapor of water, generated in a closed 
vessel or boiler, and supplied, at any pressure desired, to 
radiators in the manner previously described. 

Q. 8. What is hot water, and how produced for use in 
hot water heating ? 

A. Hot water is water charged with heat to or near 
the boiling point in a closed vessel or boiler, and supplied 
through circulating pipes to the radiators and coils in the 
manner previously described. 



18 STEAM AND HOT WATER 

Q, 9. What are the three terms used in aescribing the 
different modes of transmitting heat from one body to the 
other? 

A. Radiation, conduction, convection. 

Q. 10. How are these modes utilized in steam and 
hot water heating ? 

A. Radiation, as the term is used in heating, is when 
the heat is transmitted directly to the object having a 
lower temperature than the source from whence the heat — 
in this case the radiator — comes and passes through the 
atmosphere to all objects surrounding it. 

Conduction is where the heat passes from one object to 
another when in actual contact, as from steam to steam 
pipes, and so on. 

Convection is where the heat is conveyed by some 
medium like air, etc., from one object to another, as in 
the indirect system of heating. 

Q, 11. What is gravity? 

A. Gravity is the tendency of all matter to approach 
the earth, it being the greater mass, as '' every particle of 
matter attracts every other particle in the direct ratio of 
its mass." 

Q, 12. What produces the circulation of steam through 
the supply pipes and radiators of a steam heating appa- 
ratus ? 

A, Steam being vapor of water, or water expanded by 
heat, is lighter, therefore moves in all directions and fills 
all space accessible to it ; as the heat it contains passes off, 
or is conducted off, its volume is reduced and the steam be- 
comes water again, and it being then heavier flows to the 
lowest point provided for it. In the form of steam it is 
simply the conveyor of heat by circulation. 

Q. 13. What induces the circulation of water in the 
flow pipes and radiators of a hot water apparatus ? 

A, As water is heated it expands and, becoming 



fitters' text book. 19 

lighter, rises to the highest point and gives up its heat ; the 
less expanded or colder descends, becomes heated and again 
rises, and so on. As the heat passes out from the water by 
conduction through the iron of the radiator into the atmos- 
phere or objects in a room, the water becomes Leavier and 
descends to the lowest point provided for it. The water 
simply conveys the heat to the proper point, delivers it and 
returns for more. 

Q. 14. What causes ^.xe return of tne water oack to the 
lowest point — generally the boiler — in either case ? 

A. Its greater density, or weight, and the force of 
gravity in all such systems. 

Q. 15. In what direction then snould the main supply 
pipes of a steam heating apparatus incline ? Also the return 
or water pipes ? 

A. The main supply pipes of a steam heating apparatus 
should incline downward, from the boiler to the furthest 
point, or in the direction of the flow of the steam. In the 
case of branches or side supply pipes, however, this is modi- 
fied, and they are usually inclined up to the point of delivery. 
The inclination of the return or water mains is the reverse 
of the steam, and is downward from the furthest point ta 
the boiler, in the direction of the flow of water, 

Q, 16. In what direction should the main supply or 
flow pipes of a hot water apparatus incline? Also the 
main return pipes ? 

A. The main supply or flow pipes of a hot water appa- 
ratus should incline upward from the boiler to the point of 
distribution, and in the same direction for the return pipes. 

Q, 17. How should the main supply and return pipes of 
either system be run as regards their lateral direction ? 

A, As directly as possible, with due regard to the con- 
struction of the building and the appearance of pipes in it, 
also the location of risers and radiators, avoiding all short 
turns where i)Ossible. 



20 STEAM AND HOT WATER 

Q. 18. What is expansion? What causes it? How is it 
provided for in the erection of a heating apparatus ? 

A. Expansion is the increased separation of the particles 
of matter, of all kinds, by the action of heat. The reverse, 
or cold, is the reduction of heat, which is followed by con- 
traction. All materials are subject to like laws in expand- 
ing and contracting. 

In running pipes containing steam or hot water, due pro- 
vision is made to meet this in the arrangement of the pipes, 
by what are called breaks, expansion joints, swinging joints 
and radial arms. 

Q. 19. In designing a heating apparatus for any purpose, 
what are the principal points to be first obtained, so as to 
provide for all contingencies and supply the amount of 
heat required, etc. ? 

A. About the first information to be obtained is the geo- 
graphical location of building, of what material constructed, 
how arranged, what it is to be used for, the points of the 
compass, the lowest outdoor temperature during winter, the 
temperature required in the rooms. Where the water supply 
is to be obtained, if constant and ample. Simplicity in con- 
struction, ample proportions of parts for all purposes, with- 
out excess, ease of erection, facility for repairs and con- 
venience in management must always be provided for. 



FITTERS' TEXT BOOK, 21 

CHAPTER III. 

LOW PRESSURE STEAM. 

Question 1. In planning and proportioning self regu- 
lating low pressure steam heating apparatus for dwellings 
and buildings of moderate size, what parts and appliances 
are necessary and what are generally used ? 

Ansiver, A boiler, either of the horizontal tubular, ver- 
tical tubular, sectional, made of wrought iron pipe, sectional 
of cast iron, or a combination of cast and wrought iron, 
with all self regulating attachments for controlling air 
draft, water supply, steam pressure and main controlling 
valves, etc. 

Next, a complete system of main steam supply pipes 
and branches and return water mains, with all controlling 
valves necessary. 

Next, a set of steam risers and water return pipes, with 
a valve in each lower branch pipe, except in small houses or 
when the one-pipe system is used, then one rising pipe 
answers for both purposes, one valve on the radiator and 
on each branch pipe below. 

Next, where direct or direct-indirect radiation is used, 
one or more radiators in each room to be heated, with con- 
trolling valves, air valves, and pipe connections. 

Next, if the indirect is used the radiators are placed in 
boxes or chambers in the cellar ; cold air ducts with damp- 
ers and regulators, metal hot air tubes running up to reg- 
isters in rooms above, must be provided for. 

Q. 2. How are the horizontal tubular boilers made, 
what castings are required ? 

A. Horizontal tubular boilers are made of rolled plates 
of steel or iron, built up in section rings and held together 
by rivets in seams both horizontal and circular; the heads or 
ends are of flanged steel or iron plates riveted to the shell ; 
in these heads are the holes for the boiler tubes which pass 



22 STEAM AND HOT WATER 

from head to head and are expanded into the head plates by 
an expanding roller tool ; then there is a dome on the top of 
the shell of like material and make, and all of these heads 
are thoroughly braced to the sheets. In the dome head, en 
the shell, or in either boiler head is placed a man hole, and 
in the lower part of the boiler heads are hand holes, all fitted 
with covers and fastenings ; these are for cleaning out and 
repairing the boiler. In the upper part of the dome, and 
on the bottom of back sheet of boiler, are tapped flanges as 
outlets for steam outflow and return water inlet pipes. On 
each side of the boiler shell are riveted cast iron lugs for 
supporting the boiler on brick work. A part of the space 
above the tubes is for steam. 

The castings required for horizontal tubular boilers are 
sectional cast iron fronts, including smoke box doors, fire 
and ash pit doors, cleaning out back flue doors, top amd bot- 
tom, grate bars, bar bearers, arch plate, and flame plate, 
buck stays, a channel beam for the back arch, and tie rods 
and anchor bolts, the last three to be of wrought iron. 

Q, 3. How are they set, what materials are used, and 
how laid? 

A, Horizontal tubular boilers are set in brick work (Fig. 
46). The outer and end walls are made of best hard burned 
red brick, as a general thing, laid in cement and lime mor- 
tar. These walls are carried up above the boiler top, 
and capped with blue-stone coping. The lining of the 
furnaces, or fire pots, are of the best fire brick laid 
on flat in thin fire clay mortar with close joints, and occa- 
sionally header courses. The ash pits and a space in front 
of the boiler are paved with common brick on edge and 
grouted in with sand and mortar. 

There is always one, and sometimes two bridge walls, 
beneath the boiler ; the front one is partly faced with fire 
brick, and often the space between the two is filled in and 
paved. 

Q, 4. How are the vertical boilers made, what castings 
are required ? 



FITTERS' TEXT BOOK. 



23 



A. The vertical boilers are made of sheets of steel or 
ii'on as the others ; some are plain cylinders without domes 
or lugs, set up on end on brick work and above the fur- 
nace, others have an annular construction on one end called 
the fire box formed by an inner sheet riveted to the lower 
head and the extension of the outer sheet of boiler ; the 
space between these sheets being filled with water. 

The castings required for vertical tubular boilers are 




Fig, 46.— £ricfc Set Horizontal Boiler, 



(with or without a fire box) a cast iron bottom and top 
plate, the latter with a hole in it the diameter of the boiler, 
fitted with a cover in two parts, a cast iron ring for the 
grate to rest on, a grate, either dumping or fixed, a fire 
door and a swinging ash pit door set in frames, sometimes 
a cast iron base plate for bottom of ash pit and flue clean- 
ing doors at the bottom of the down draft flue. 



<?. 5. 
laid? 



How are they set, what materials used, and how 



A, They are set with the same materials as the hori- 
zontal tubular boilers. The simpler class have outer walls 



24 STEAM AND HOT WATER 

ot hard brick, and a furnace lined with fire brick, with a 
space for down draught around the outer shell. 

The fire box vertical boilers are set in a similar manner; 
the outer walls are run up above the top of the boiler, and 
are capped by a casting, thus forming the smoke box ; 
with this the outer annular flue around the shell of the 
boiler is connected, the lower end being connected with the 
smoke flue, thus forming the down draught flue outlet. 

Q. 6. How are sectional boilers made, and what castings 
are required ? 

A. Sectional boilers are made of almost every posible 
shape and material, chiefly of a combination of case parts 
and headers with wrought iron pipe. One of the earliest 
styles was in the form of a box coil, so-called ; it had cast 
iron headers with wrought iron coil, made up with cast iron 
return bends. Others are made of inclined or bent boiler 
flues expanded into cast iron or steel headers, or wrought 
iron drums. Others are entirely of cast iron held together 
by wrought iron bolts, and are of many forms, the object 
being the same, but the results varied. 

The castings required for setting sectional boilers are 
generally (depending upon their construction) cast iron 
frames and fronts, smoke, fire and ash pit doors, clearing- 
out or dust doors for various parts of boilers, arch and 
flame plates, grate bars and bar bearers, buck stays with 
tie rods, and sometimes cast or wrought iron beams for 
carrying the fire bricks covering the top, or cover of fire 
chamber. 

Q. 7. How are they set, what materials are used, and 
how laid? 

A. The settings, in most cases, are only an inclosure of 
the various parts by outer walls of hard c ^mmon brick, and 
furnace and side lining of fire brick, covered on top by fire 
brick, supported by iron beams. 

Others of these boilers are what are called portables — 
that is, without setting and easily moved. 



fitters' text book. 25 

Q. 8. What are the parts of the self regulating feed 
apparatus, how made ; how connected up with boiler and 
water supply ? 

A, The parts of a self acting feed water apparatus (Fig. 
47) are an oblong cast iron receptacle or skiell, sometimes 
round, or flattened on the sides and irregular in shape. A 
lever of brass with an air tight hollow copper sphere is fas- 
tened on one end, and two pivoting pieces at the other end ; 
beyond these is a projection with a recess to hold a rubber 
disk, or valve ; on the outer side of this cast iron shell is 
sometimes attached a glass water gauge ; on the top is a 
hole tapped for the steam connection ; on the bottom is 
another tapped for the feed to the boiler ; at the other end, 
below, is another tapped hole for tne cold water supply 
pipe. 

This is set up by the side of the boiler, sometimes rest- 
ing on a flange on the floor, or supported by proper pipe 
connections, etc., the centre of the apparatus being on 
a line with what is desired to be the water line of the 
boiler. Pipe connections are then made between the top of 
the casting and the steam space of boiler, the bottom 
with the lower part of the boiler direct, or with the main 
water return pipe near the boiler, and inside of all control- 
ling valves, or checks; the opposite end of casting is connected 
with the water supply pipe, a cross connection is made be- 
tween this supply pipe and the discharge pipe to the boiler, 
with proper controlling cocks or valves in each so that a 
direct feed to the boiler, if necessary, may be made, or 
through the self regulating valve, as may be desired ; each 
part should be under complete control, by means of cocks 
or valves, so that repairs may be made without stopping 
the apparatus. 

The water being admitted by the supply pipe passes 
through the regulating valve into the casting, from thence 
through the discharge pipe into the boiler. As soon as the 
water in the boiler rises to a certain level, which is the 
same as in the feeder, then the copper ball rising with it 




26 



STEAM AND HOT WATER 



actuates the lever, closes the regulating valve and shuts off 
the water supply. As soon as the water falls below this 




Fig» 47, --Water Feeder and Pipe Connections. 



point the ball acting on the lever opens the valve and ad- 
mits more water. 



FITTERS' TEXT BOOK. 27 

Q. 9. What are the parts of a draught regulator ? How 
made ? How connected up with the boiler and damper ? 

A, The parts of a draught regulating damper are parts 
of two hemispherical castings with a flange on each, and a 
forked projection on one ; a small thin casting with a de- 
pression in the centre, a pin with a fork at one end, a lever 
with three small holes through it, one at each end and 
another near the middle, two small pins, a counter balance 
weight, and a cup shaped diaphragm of rubber. 

The small casting with depression on it is fastened to the 
centre of rubber diaphragm ; this is placed between the two 
hemispheres, and then they are bolted together, the forked 
pin is put through a hole i i the upper hemisphere and rests 
in the socket or depression. In casting on the rubber dia- 
phragm, the lever is put in the forks in the top of casting, 
the pin passed through it, a chain attached at one end of the 
lever and the counter weight on the other. 

The bottom of the lower casting is connected with the 
steam space of the boiler by means of a siphon pipe, and rests 
generally on the top of the boiler, or near it ; the chain on 
the end of lever is connected with the lever of the balanced 
or cold air check damper in the smoke pipe and the swing- 
ing ash pit door. 

Q. 10. How are the parts of the glass water gauge 
made ? How are they connected up and used ? 

A, The parts of a glass water gauge are generally a cast 
iron stand pipe, or water column, with holes tapped top and 
bottom, three holes for gauge cocks tapped on one side, and 
two holes on another side, one near the top and the other 
near the bottom, tapped for the brass trimmings and pipe 
connections. 

The gauge proper is made of brass, with a receptacle for 
the glass, which may be of varied length, with valves on 
the top and bottom. 

These parts are screwed into the stand pipe, the glass 
put in place, and made steam tight by rubber washers ; 
three regular gauge cocks are screwed into their places, a 



28 STEAM AND HOT WATER 

pipe connection is then made between the steam space of 
the boiler and the top of water column and the water space 
of boiler and the bottom of water column, with a control- 
ling valve in each. The water line of boiler coincides with 
a line about the centre of water column : sometimes it is 
varied. 

Q. 11. What are the uses of a steam gauge, how is it 
made, and how connected with the boiler ? 

A, The use of a steam gauge is to show the pressure of 
steam which is being carried in the boiler. 

The parts of a modern standard steam pressure gauge are 
a cast iron or brass case, a flattened metal tube curved to a 
certain shape, and called the '* Bourdon tube spring " (from 
the name of its inventor), several levers, and a pointer. 
The tendency of the pressure of steam when admitted into 
this pipe is to straighten it. This is the actuating force, 
and the movement produced is transmitted by the levers, 
etc. , to the pointer ; as the pressure varies, the levers are 
moved ; the amount of motion in the spring and the pointer 
showing on the graduated face of the gauge front. Some- 
times a double spring is used for special purposes, also a 
corrugated steel diaphragm is used, which is placed between 
two disks or hemispheres, and the motion transmitted 
directly to the pointer. The gauge is connected with the 
steam space of the boiler by means of a pipe and a siphon. 

Q. 12. What are the uses of a safety valve ? How is it 
made ? How should it be placed and connected up with the 
boiler ? 

A. The use of the safety valve (Figs. 48. 49 and 50) is 
to relieve the steam pressure in the boiler when it passes 
beyond the point desired by blowing it out into the atmos- 
phere. For low pressure boilers it is usually like an ordi- 
nary angle valve with the spindle running out of the top, 
without packing (Fig. 48) ; on this rests a ball or disks of 
any weight required for the steam pressure it is desired to 
carry. Others have a lever and weight (Fig. 49). It 



fitters' text book. 



29 



should be placed near the top of the boiler and connected 
directly with the steam space without a cock or valve in 
the connecting pipe. 

Q, 13. What valves are required in the main supply 




Fig. 48. — Brass, Dead 
WexQht Low Pressure 
Safety Valve. 




^.—Section of Pop Safety 
Valve, 




Fig, 49 — Brass ^ Lever High Pressure Safety Valve. 



pipes for all returns to the boiler, blow off pipe, water 
feeder, glass water gauge, or any other parts, such as pass- 
by s, etc. ? How arranged in pipe ? 

A, When using very low pressures it was the practice 
of many to place no controlling valves on either the steam 



30 STEAM AND HOT WATER 

or return mains, but the general practice now in buildings 
of moderate size is to place a globe or angle valve (Figs. 38 
and 39) in the main steam pipe and globe or gate valve (Fig. 
40) and a swinging check valve (Figs. 41 and 42) in the 
return, near the boiler ; on the blow off either a plain brass 
cock (Fig. 51) or an asbestos packed one (Fig. 52) is now 
used ; in the water feeder connections about five steam cocks 
or valves and one check valve (Fig. 43) are used ; on the 
water column a valve top and bottom, and a blow out valve 
or cock at the lowest point ; on the pass-by from the re- 
turn main a blow out cock or valve. 





Fig. 61. — Brass Steam Cock, Fig, 53. — Section Asbestos 

Packed Steam Cock, 



Q. 14. Should each part be under controlling cocks or 
valves and independent of the boiler? 

A, Yes ; in every way, so that repairs may be made 
without interference with the working of the apparatus, the 
safety valve and the steam gauge always excepted. 

Q. 15. Are the parts above mentioned and described 
necessary and applicable to all forms of low pressure steam 
heating boilers and apparatus ? 

A» The parts herein described are considered essential 
for the best work. 

Q, 16. How should the parts of pipes passing through 
brick work or in any way exposed to extra heat be pro- 
tected ? 

A, The parts of pipes passing through brick work or 



FITTERS' TEXT BOOK. 31 

hot air flues, when containing either steam or water, sach 
as the feed water pipes, the blow off pipes, and sometimes 
parts of steam mains, should be protected by sleeves made 
of larger size iron pipe, or by some non-conducting material, 
or both, depending upon the temperature of the hot air or 



S2 STEAM AND HOT WATER 



CHAPTER IV. 

TWO=PIPE STEAM HEATING. 

Question 17. What appliances are used for conveying 
the steam generated in the boiler to the radiators where 
it is utilized ? 

Answer. The appliances used for conveying the steam 
from the boilers to the radiators are the steam supply and 
return water of condensation pipes, such as horizontal mains 
and their branches to the rising steam and return water lines, 
the branch steam supply pipes to the radiators and their 
water returns, all to be run with great care and as straight 
as possible without deflections, known as traps and pockets. 
(Figs. 53, 54 and 55 show basement, first and second story 
plans of a residence heated by the two -pipe steam direct 
radiation system.) 

Q. 18. How are the steam and return mains run, what 
means are used for relieving the steam main of water of 
condensation, and what inclination is given to the pipes ? 

A. The steam mains are run from the highest point 
near the boiler to the point nearest the risers or to the 
radiators on the first floor, with a slight inclination from 
the boiler to the furthest point to be supplied. The rate of 
inclination is usually about J^ inch in 10 feet, some- 
times more and again less, depending on circumstances. 
Where the run is very long it sometimes becomes necessary 
to make a second rise to the highest point practicable and 
again commence another run with proper inclination, etc., 
as before. This rise or break also provides a means of 
taking up the expansion in the pipe. The return mains are 
generally run parallel with and near the steam mains, but 
with ample inclination toward the boiler, the reverse of the 
steam (Fig. 56). Outlets are left at suitable points in both 
mains, as required, for the branch pipes to risers or radia- 



FITTERS' TEXT BOOK. 
/ 



RISER Ij 




CEILINGS 8 FT. HIGH 



Fig, ^.— Two- Pipe Steam Direct Radiation System. — 
Basement Plan, 



d4 



STEAM AND HOT WATER 




a 



D=a Lj=ai 

PORCH 



=3 — tr 



t: 



LAUNDRY 



□□PI 



SERVANTS' 
HALL 



hDir 



I 



In 



^ En 



24 SQ.FT. 
BUTLER'S CLOS. 



^ 



DINING ROOM 



PORCH 



o. 



FT.JI 



U=^ 1J 



-^ 



Ji 



GALLERY 



S6 SQ.FT. 

I — =r" 



=...[ 



HALL 



] 



DRAWING ROOM 



^■Q 



CEILINGS 12 FT. HIGH 



n=o= 



PIAZZA 



^^ 



^ 



^ 



Fig. ^,— Two- Pipe Steam Direct Radiation System,— 
First-Floor Plan. 



fitters' text book. 



35 




CEILINGS 10 FT. HIGH 



Fig, 55. — Two-Fipe Steam Direct Radiaiion System.— 
Second-Floor Flan. 



36 



STEAM AND HOT WATER 



tors and their returns. A relief pipe is taken out at the end 
of the steam main, or wherever a break or rise is made or a 
change of inclination becomes necessary. The relief pipe in 
low pressure steam work is sometimes taken at once into 
the return water main, when that is run below the water 
line of boiler (Fig. 57) or by a separate pipe with its valves 
and checks when taken from the end of the steam main : 



INCLINATI ON ^^ (N 10 PT. 




BOILER 
L.PRESSURE 



.. IfCOCK 



1/- -« r-r STEAM 
INCLINATION M IN 10 FT. r^liEF 
PIPE 




COCK 

SIDE ELEVATION 



i^COCK 

i^^M. „ 

COCK 

END ELEVATION 



Fig. 56 — Two-Pipe Systetn with Overhead Return. 



INCLINATION)^ IN 10 FT. 



r€~r' 



BOILER 
LOW PRESSURE 



:t5?4u, 



I 

I 
I 




COCK 

SIDE ELEVATION 



AaraMvi^r ^^T^TX— ^>*r 



COCK COCK 

END ELEVATION 



Fig, 57. — Two-Pipe System with Submerged Return 



this is run parallel with it and back to the boiler with a 
separate connection to the boiler, or into the return main 
inside of the main check and globe valve. 

Q. 19. How are the risers run, supported and pro- 
tected ? How many are used ? Are valves placed below 
the risers in the branch connections ? 

A. The risers are run from the cellar or basement up 
to the top floor or room to be heated. They are sometimes 



r'lTTERS' TEXT BOOK. 37 

run in channels made in the walls to receive them, and 
these are covered over with iron lathing, or wire cloth, 
plastered over, boarded up or protected by fire proofing, 
etc. Sometimes they are run in the room clear of the 
main house walls and are exposed or inclosed with fire 
proof material or boxed in with sheet metal. The plan 
most used now is to run them near the walls and leave 
them exposed and i)roperly finished. This is the easiest 
and in many respects the best way, as they can be readily 
reached for repairs and any defects which may develop 
can be detected. Those run in recesses or flues in exposed 
walls are usually well felted and protected, the fastening 
being annealed copper wire. 

The risers are supported in their positions by clamps 
fastened in the wall ; short risers are supported from be- 
low ; in buildings of moderate hight in the middle ; in 
very tall buildings by breaks in the pipe, sometimes one or 
more, to provide for expansion and contraction, and at the 
same time a support is obtained between the floors. 

Two risers are generally used, one for the steam supply 
the other for the return water, except in what are called 
one-pipe systems, where one pipe answers both purposes (a 
special chapter will be devoted to this system in the future). 

Valves are placed below the risers in the branch pipes near 
to the mains and of the same size as the risers, also on single 
or one-pipe systems, so that the risers may be shut off for 
repairs while steam is on the house, but in small two-story 
houses using low pressure steam they are usually omitted. 

Risers should be run as near the radiators as the sprins: 
of pipes for expansion will admit ; long branches are ob- 
jectionable ; it is better practice to put in more risers. 

Q. 20. What are the supply and return pipes from the 
risers to the radiators called ? How are these branch pipes 
run and how relieved of water ? 

A. The supply and return pipes from the risers to the 
radiators are called branch pipes, and should be run with 
great care so as to secure ample drip to and from the radi- 



30 STEAM AND HOT WATER 

at or and the riser, and make the best arrangement to secure 
freedom of expansion for both sets of pipes, at the same 
time to produce a neat and unobjectionable arrangement. 
Sometimes the branch pipes are run under the floor with 
connections coming up through it. In wooden buildings 
and those with wooden floors this can be done, but in fire 
proof buildings it is very difficult. Sometimes they are run 
above the floor either back or front of or beneath the radia- 
tors, when high legs are used. There are many ways and 
it requires good judgment and skill to select the best for 
each case. The inclination of the short steam branch sup- 
ply pipes from the riser to the radiator or coil valve is some- 
times downward toward the radiator. If, however, more 
than about 6 feet in length, in most cases it is upward to 
the valve, but downward to the radiator to allow the water 
condensed in the pipe to drain both ways ; the latter is the 
best practice. The return branch pipe should always in- 
cline downward to the riser. 

Q. 21. How are radiators made, and of what material? 

A. Radiators are made of wrought iron pipe or cast 
iron pipe in sections or loops arranged vertically in rows. 
The principles of construction and circulation of steam are 
the same in all forms, the difference being in the material 
used and the shape of parts, each maker claiming some ad- 
vantage. 

The essential parts are a base, or its equivalent, into 
which pipes are screwed. The pipes in the first form 
used were of wrought iron screwed into the base and con- 
nected at the top by a return bend. Then came what is 
known as the Nason radiator — it being the invention of 
Joseph Nason of New York City. This is a single pipe, 
divided by a sheet iron diapraghm running from the bot- 
tom of the pipe up to within a short distance of the top; this 
arrangement made it practically two pipes in one. Then 
came the Bundy cast iron pipe. This is a double pipe, 
united both top and bottom and screwed into the base. 



fitters' text book. 39 

Another form which covers the same ground is a cast iron 
section, made up of two or more connected barrels or pipes, 
cast in one piece as a unit, and these united with screwed 
nipples at the bottom for steam, and both top and bottom 
for hot water. These form the radiator ; the pipe connec- 
tion at the bottom being large, forms a substitute for the 
regular base. 

Q. 22. What are the different kinds of radiators which 
are now generally used ? 

A, The radiators commonly used at the present time 
are chiefly of cast iron, and made up of sections. There 
are many manufacturers, each maker having a number of 
different forms and styles, but the principle of action is 
about the same. The condensation of the steam on the in- 
ner surface of the pipe causes an upward flow of steam from 
the base or other source of supply ; this causes the so-called 
circulation in the radiator. The air which may be in the 
radiator when the steam is first turned on is forced forward 
and goes to the last pipe or section in the radiator, where the 
air valve is connected. 

Q, 23. What is the difference between what is generally 
known as a radiator and what is known as a wall or other 
coil? 

A. The difference between what is generally known as 
a radiator and what is known as a wall or other coil is, 
the radiator is a vertical arrangement of pipes as above 
described, the coil is horizontal. 

Q. 24. Of what material are coils made, and how con- 
structed and arranged and best utilized ; also their general 
advantages ? 

A. Coils are made usually of wrought iron pipe of from 
1 to 2 inches in diameter, and are called return bend coils 
(Fig. 58), miter wall coils (Fig. 59), corner wall coils (Fig. 60), 
and box coils (Fig. 61). They are all among the first forms 
of radiating surface used for plain work generally, although 
the return bend coil is sometimes used in the better class of 



40 



STEAM AND HOT WATER 



work now. The return bend coil, as its name indicates 
IS made up of uniform lengths of wrought iron p^pe con 
nected together alternately on the ends^y returriX 
thus forming a continuous pipe from top to bottom S 




Fig. bi.-Beturn Bend Hot Water Coil. 




-a* 



Fig. 59.— Miier Coil. 



sSefofL > "f ^'^- ^^' "°^1 ^^'^^^^"y rests on a 

r^oden S.T'''^'°^r''^^'^'''''^^^«'^«*^^P« ^--3- fast 
to wooden battens usually nailed to a wall. They may 

be of single, double or treble rows ^ 

Box coils (Fig. 61) are made up of a series of the above 



fitters' text book. 



41 



described coils united at the top and bottom by a branch 
tee or header, to which the steam supply and water return 
pipes are connected. The series of coils are held together 




Fig. 61. — Common Box Coil. 

by iron straps with bolts and nuts, the whole resting on feet 
on the floor. 

Wall coils are made of wrought iron pipe with a 
branch tee or header on each end. In order to provide for 
expansion, near one end of the coil are elbows and short 



42 STEAM AND HOT WATER 

pieces with a change of direction of run to right angles ; 
these short pieces of pipe are called spring pieces, and by 
their elasticity in giving a little they take up the expansion 
of the long pieces of pipe and prevent warping and break- 
ing. When near a corner in a wall these short pieces make 
the break at the corner. When otherwise located they are 
turned up or down on the wall, thus producing the same 
effect. 

Such coils as above described are very effective heating 
surface, and being generally painted black they are good 
radiators of heat. The horizontal position of the pipe and 
their ample separation give the rising currents of air a 
chance to reach the pipe surface. They are generally placed 
in stores, factories and buildings used for working purposes. 

Q. 25. Where should the heating surface in a room be 
placed to produce the best effect ? Which is the coldest side 
of a room generally ? 

A. The heating surface in a room should be placed near 
the coldest side, which is usually the north and west, or 
near a window, or wherever cold is likely to enter, so as to 
^ heat the air up quickly and thus prevent cold drafts. 

Q. 26. What sometimes prevents the heating up of a 
radiator ? How is the air expelled ? 

A, Air will sometimes prevent the heating up of a 
coil, as ifc will leak through the joints into the radiator 
when it is cold, and a partial vacuum is formed by the 
condensation of the steam remaining in it after the main 
supply is shut off. When live steam enters again it pushes 
this cold air forward and compresses it into some pipe or 
comer, and this prevents the steam from entering or doing 
its full duty. Generally it collects at a point opposite to 
where the steam enters or near the return pipe. An air 
cock or valve, operated either by hand or automatically, is 
placed at this point and the air is allowed to escape. 

Q. 27. How are automatic air valves made ? How do 
they operate ? How are they connected up ? 



FITTERS' TEXT BOOK. 43 

A, Automatic air valves were originally made of iron 
rods and brass tubes so arranged that when cold the valve 
was slightly open ; when steam was turned into the radi- 
ator it forced the cold air ahead of it out of the open valve, 
but the moment the hot steam touched the sensitive brass 
it expanded and closed the opening and remained closed 
until air should again collect in it and become cold from 
want of circulation; then the metal would contract, the 
valve open and the air escape. Many modifications have 
been made recently, the principle of action, however, 
being the same, expansion and contraction by hot steam 
and cooler air. 

Q. 28. How is the steam supply to and the water of 
condensation return from the radiator controlled ? 

A, The steam supply to and water of condensation re- 
turn from the radiator are controlled by radiator valves. 
The glo^e corner, opposite angle, angle or gate pattern are 
used. 

Q. 29. What kind of radiators are usually used for 
direct-indirect heating, and where are they located in a 
room? 

A, Vertical wrought iron or cast iron pipe radiators 
are used for direct-indirect heating. The space below the 
usual radiator base is inclosed and the base has holes 
through it between the pipes. The cold air from the out- 
side of house is brought in through an opening, or duct, of 
galvanized iron or tin, with n damper in it to regulate the 
air supply to radiator. The radiator is usually located near 
a window, as being best for heating purposes, as well as 
for arranging the cold air ducts. 

Q. 30. Is there any means of obtaining a fresh air sup- 
ply to a room when the regular direct radiator is used ? 

A. There is a mode of obtaining fresh air for a room 
when direct radiation is used. The radiator is placed in 
front of a window, the lower part of the sash is either per- 
forated with holes, which can be closed by a sliding damper, 



44 STEAM AND HOT WATER 

or a damper made for the purpose is let into the frame. 
The fresh air is thus admitted and the heated air from the 
radiator rises up and mingles with and tempers it. Another 
mode is sometimes used : A strip of wood about 3^ inch 
thick by 4 inches wide, and in length the full width of the 
window, is placed in front of the lower part of the sash, 
leaving a narrow space between the sash and the strip of 
wood. When the sash is slightly raised the air enters below 
it and is deflected upward by the strip of wood. The 
heated air rising up from the radiator mingles with and 
warms it to the desired temperature. By raising or lower- 
ing the sash, more or less cold air may be admitted. 



45 



CHAPTER V. 

SINGLE PIPE LOW PRESSURE STEAM 

HEATING. 

Question 1. What is a single or one-pipe system of steam 
heating (see Figs. 62, 63 and 64, showing basement, first and 

nan 



:^ 



I' 



BOILER 75 SQ.FT. 
HEATING SURFACE 



.^ll 



li" 



[ 



"S RISER lj" , HR 

''II .?• 8 lij . 



1^ 



1CHIMNEY 



fnisER li 



D 



RISER^iy* 1 1 ,[ . RISER \\ 




D 

a 



a 



Fig. 62.— Single Pipe Steam System^ Direct Radiation.— 
Basement Plan. 

second floor plans of house heated by single pipe steam di- 
rect radiation) ? How arranged? What are its advantages? 
Has the system been much used ? If not, why ? 



46 



STEAM AND HOT WATER 



Answer. A single or one-pipe system of steam heating, 
as known to the trade, is where one pipe performs the 
duties of both the steam supply and return for water of 
condensation. The main steam supply from the boiler is 




Fig. 63. — Single Pipe Steam System, Direct Radiation,^ Fir st- 
Floor Plan, 



run in about the same manner as for the two-pipe system, 
of ample dimensions and inclination, with as few reduc- 
tions in size as possible, connected up by eccentric tees and 
reducers when required. 

The outlets for risers and first-floor radiator connections 



FITTERS' TEXT BOOK. 



47 



are left as usual, the main being run to the furthest point 
to be supplied ; there a relief, or return water pipe, is 
connected and run back with ample inclination to and 
connected up with the boiler with globe and check 




Fig. 64. — Single Pipe Steam System, Direct Radiation. — Second- 
Floor Plaii. 



valves, pass bys to sewers, etc. If the main pipe branches 
run in opposite or two or more different directions the 
same mode of connections, etc., is carried out. The branch 
pipes to the risers are taken out of the top of the main and 
connected up as usual. The branch connections from the 
risers to the radiators are made with only one side of the 



48 STEAM AND HOT WATER 

radiator. The valves used are either gate, corner angle or 
opposite angle, and so placed as to secure a free passage 
for both steam and water. Air valves are generally used 
in this mode of connection. 

The steam passes from the boiler through the main pipe, 
the various branches and connections, to the first floor, and 
through the risers and branches to the upper floors, and 
the radiators, coils, etc. (Figs. 65 and 66). The inclination 
of these branches is downward from the radiators to the 
risers and from the risers to the steam main, and the main 
is inclined downward to the furthest point. The water of 
condensation therefore flows from point to point and is 
finally taken out by the relief or return water pipe at the 
end of main and carried back into the boiler. 

This particular arrangement is often used for small 
buildings of two or three stories high, such as cottages, 
small flats, etc. A modification of this system is often 
used for larger buildings. In this case a regular steam and 
return main are run parallel to each other in the cellar ; 
the return water from the bottom of the risers is taken off 
by a separate pipe into the return main. Tho reliefs to the 
branches from the first floor radiator supply pipes are 
treated in the same way. Of course the inclination of all 
these branches is from the main supply pipe down toward 
these relief points, thus promptly clearing the pipes of all 
water formed in them or received from above. 

The advantage of this system is its extreme simplicity 
in construction and management (there being but one 
valve on each radiator). This greatly reduces the first cost, 
and when properly put up perfect circulation and noiseless 
working are assured. It can be adapted to all the various 
systems of steam heating — direct, indirect, or direct-in- 
direct. 

In the early days of steam heating this system was much 
used for low pressures, but from imperfect design and pro- 
portions and poor workmanship it was gradually abandoned. 
When high pressures came into use the two-pipe system 



fitters' text book. 



49 



was almost entirely used, but for low pressure work, in its 
improved form, the single pipe is well suited. 

Q. 2. How ^ many different forms of the single pipe 
system are coramonly used, and what is each style best 
adapted to ? 

A. The systems which have been used may be distin- 
guished as one which receives the steam supply from below, 



INCLINATION J^ IN Io'fT i 



i L 



I incunationK 'N 10 PT. 



BOILER 
L.P. 



"T^O-i COCK 
I * BLOW OFF 





SIDE ELEVATION END ELEVATION 

Fig. Qo.—Steam, One-Pipe System, 

r INCLINATION 34" IN ^^ "' 







SIDE ELEVATION 



I COCK 

'elow off 

COCK 

END ELEVATION 



Fig. 66 —Steam^ One-Pipe System, with Risers Dripped Into 
Beturn, 



the other from above the first floor, The former has just 
been fully described ; the latter may be briefly stated as the 
reverse of the other, except that the return water mains 
only are run in the cellar, as in other systems. The steam 
is taken from the boiler in a large steam main or riser, and 
is carried direct to the upper floor or garret ; there it is sub- 
divided and carried around to the points where tlie risers 
come up from below ; they are then connected up with 



50 



STEAM AND HOT WATER 



valves, etc. (Fig. 67). These risers pass down through the 
various floors, with outlets for branch pipes on each floor. 
At these points they are connected up with the radiators 
with one valve, as before described. The supply of steam 
passes into each radiator as it descends in the riser and the 
water of condensation flows down the riser with the steam 
until it reaches the cellar, where it passes through the con- 
necting pipes into the main return, and from there into the 
boiler. Where there is ample room on the top floor this 



H 



3 



■INCLINATION ^''IN 10 rr. 



-5th 



INCUINATION};^ IN 10 FT. 



SIDE ELEVATION 



[]- 



U'' 



END ELEVATION 



Fig. 67.— Single Pipe with Riser to Steam Main on Top Story y 
and One-Pipe Risers Down to Return Main in Basement 



system can be neatly and effectively arranged, and it is very 
efficient and noiseless in its working. It has been applied 
with success in some large buildings in the past few years. 
It has the advantage of requiring only one valve on the 
radiator, but some object to the use of the upper story and 
the running of the large riser as unnecessary and also to lo- 
cating the means of controlling the risers too far from the 
boiler room, in the attic. 

Q, 3. Is there any difference in the construction of the 
boiler, the number or arrangement of parts or attachments 
used in connection with the boiler, etc. ? 



FITTERS' TEXT BOOK. 51 

A, No differences of construction in the boiler, attach- 
ments or connections are required. They are the same as 
for any other low pressure steam system. 

Q. 4. Is there any difference in the sizes and arrange- 
ments of the steam supply and return mains? If so, in 
what respect ? 

A. The steam mains, having two duties to perform, 
being conduits for both steam and return water, are larger, 
and having a greater amount of water in them than in the 
other system are made of generous proportions and run 
large size to their ends. The return mains are of moderate 
size, allowing for the friction of the water in a long run, 
and are of about the same size from end to end. 

Q. 5. Is there any difference in the number, size, mode 
of running and connecting up of the risers ? If so, in what 
respect do they differ from other systems ? 

A. There are no differences in the mode of running the 
risers and making connections other than those already 
described ; there being but one riser and connecting branch 
to radiator, only one valve is required ; the same is the case 
all through. 

Q. 6. Are the radiators or coils used of the same make 
and arrangement ? If not, in what respect do they differ ? 

A. The radiators and coils generally used in these sys- 
tems are the same as in other systems, there being but one 
pipe connection with the radiator ; this, however, is of lar- 
ger size than in the other systems and the opening on the 
other end of the radiator is plugged up. 

Q. 1. Are simple hand or automatic air valves and pipes 
required for this system ? How are they usually arranged 
and operated ? Have any other modes of arrangement or 
operating, without air valves, been tried ? What are they ? 

A. The hand or automatic air valves are of the same 
make commonly used, but they are placed in the last pipe 
on the end opposite to where the steam is taken in. In 
some cases effective work has been reported without air 



52 STEAM AND HOT WATER 

valves, as where the steam supply comes from above. But it 
is safer and better practice to have them on the radiators. 

Q. 8. What kind of valves are used in connecting up 
the radiators ? Which are considered the best ? 

A» The valves used in the connections to the radiators 
are the same as in other systems — gate, corner, angle and 
opposite angle are generally used, and have proved very 
satisfactory, 



53 



CHAPTER VI. 

INDIRECT STEAM HEATING. 

Question 1. Is there any difference made in the boiler 
and attachments or the running of the main steam and re- 
turn pipes when used for indirect heating instead of direct? 
If so, what are they, and why ? 



£ 



INCLINATION 1^' 



BOILER 
L. P. 



=^ie3C=r 



•**So*r — — A— — — — 
COCK'* bCowTipe side elevation end ELEVATION 

Fig. 68. — Indirect Steam, Return on Floor. 

Answer. The boilers and attachments for indirect 
steam heating are in every way the same as for direct 
heating. The main steam pipes are the same, but the re- 
turn mains are sometimes run along the wall near the 
floor, or in covered trenches beneath the floor. (See Fig. 68.) 
This is sometimes necessary, as, the indirect radiators being 
suspended from the cellar beams, the return pipes come 
down too low to be run with the steam mains, as they would 
obstruct the head room in the cellar. 

Q, 2. What kind of radiators are usually used for in- 
direct heating ? How are they made and connected up ? 
Where located and how supported and operated? Where 
are the air valves placed ? 

A. The radiators used in indirect steam heating are of 
many forms and patterns. Those which were first used 
were of the box coil style and generally made of 1-inch 
wrought iron pipe ; subsequently flat cast iron sections 
with projections or pins on their sides were used. This 
was to increase the amount of heating surface and break 
up the air currents so a's to bring all parts of the air in 
contact with the heated surface of the iron sections. 



54 STEAM AND HOT WATER 

There are many other forms used, some with fins or ex- 
tended surface, as it is called, but the extended surface can 
only be estimated as of 10 to 15 per cent, of the value 
of prime surface with which the steam is in direct and 
close contact. The steam connections are made on the top 
at one end with both the box coils and cast iron sections and 
the return connections on the opposite side on the lower 
end of coil or stack. 

The radiating surface is best located as near the uptake 
or hot air flue as possible, and with few if any turns or cor- 
ners, with easy curves in pipes, and as free from obstructions 
or deflections as practicable in all connecting pipes. Regard 
should be also had to the fresh air supply and to the 
direction from which the prevailing winds in winter blow. 
The coils or sections are supported by eye bolts or other 
hangers made fast to the beams above the radiators, leaving 
ample space between them and the top of the inclosing 
boxes. When the radiators are located in brick chambers 
they are supported by pieces of pipe or iron bars resting in 
the brick work. The cold air supplj^ enters below the 
radiators, passes upward between and around them and 
collects in the space above them, then goes to the uptake or 
hot air flue to the rooms to be heated. 

The air valves are placed near to and connected with the 
section or pipe nearest the return pipe. 

Q. 3. Of what are inclosing boxes or chambers usually 
made, and how constructed ? 

A. Inclosing boxes or chambers were originally made 
of brick, built up around the coils and running from the 
floor of cellar to the ceiling. Heating coils are now usually 
inclosed in wooden boxes made of narrow matched boards 
lined with tin or galvanized sheet iron. Sometimes they 
are made of two thicknesses of board with heavy sized paper 
placed between and laid so as to break joints and prevent 
I he leakage in of dust and impure air from the cellar. In 
other cases both ducts and boxes are made of galvanized 
iron with soldered joints, or they may be made with bolted 



fitters' text book. 55 

joints with some elastic substance between. In all cases 
either air tight spaces or some non-conducting material 
should inclose the galvanized iron boxes so as to prevent 
the loss of heat in the cellar. 

Q. 4. Of what materials are the cold air supply ducts 
usually made ? From whence is the air taken and how is 
the supply controlled ? 

A. The cold air supply for radiators is usually taken 
from some window or opening in the wall made for the 
purpose on the north or west side of the building, as the 
prevailing winds are from that quarter in winter. 

The quantity of air admitted is regulated by a pivoted 
damper, operated by hand, or automatically by a steam 
pressure damper regulator. As the steam pressure in- 
creases or decreases in the boiler the damper is opened 
more or less or closed entirely. 

Other devices have been used for this and kindred pur- 
poses, to control the temperature of the air admitted to the 
rooms, etc., but all operate on the same general principles. 

Q. 5. How is the air, after being heated, distributed to 
the various points where needed ? 

A. The air after being heated by the radiators passes 
up through tin or galvanized iron ducts placed in the wall 
when the house is being built, or run up outside of the inner 
side of wall and inclosed by fire proofing, or boxed in with 
wood with inclosed air space or mineral wool filling 
around it. 

The best practice is to run a separate hot air duct to 
each room, with a register of ample size at the top. Ordi- 
narily this is not practicable, so one flue of increased size 
with deflecting plate or damper in it, also a register on each 
floor, is made to answer the purpose. 

Sometimes valves or dampers are arranged in the cellar 
where the cold air ducts are located and so connected that 
cold air may be introduced into the hot air flue and the air 
tempered to a ay degree desirable. This can be done by 
rods and levers operated from the rooms above, or auto- 
matically by special devices. 



56 



STEAM AND HOT WATER 

ana 



FLUE TO BED ROOM NO. 11 
_JI1 ^""^ 8" 



FLUE TO BED ROOM NO. 12 
4"x 10 " 



CD ROOM N0.10 FLUE 
4"x 10' 



STER 10 X 12 
.10 X 12 



V^ 60 SQ.FT. A\ i4HI / II -i 3CU, 

w-A FLUETifi 7T?^Tr^ 

\ Roor 




FLUE TO BEO 18 X 24 
6X12 „ „ / ROO'^ N0.8 

REGISTER 12 X 12" / 6"X ta" 

REGISTER 10 X 12 



D 



D 



Fig, 69.— Steam Indirect Badiation, Two-Pipe System.— 
Basem^ent Plan. 



fitters' text book. 



57 



X 



PORCH 




"IT 



"T: 



LAUNDRY 



REGISTER Q 

io"x 12" 



SERVANTS' 
HAUL 



□□□I 



u- 



IS 



Ls 



Id 



REGISTER 

6"x 10"° 

BUTLER'S CLOS. 



I [REGISTER 
14* X 20" 



DINING ROOM 



^3 — q 



c^ 



nj REGISTER 
12"X 14" 



J — LL, 



pREGISTER 

lo'x 10" 



LIBRARY 



1 



H------ 



□ REGISTER 
2"x 12" 



[■ 



GALLERY 



REGISTER □ 
12'x 12" 



rzpy 



i| 
1.1 
|l HALL 

I— 

ibis- 



REGISTER 

io"x io"o 



DRAWING ROOM 



CEILINGS 12 FT._HIGH 



JlECllSTER REGISTER pjl 

I^IQJX 12* 10"xj2" ' 



PIAZZA 



^l 



^ 



=0==? 



Fig, 70. — Steam Indirect Radiation^ Two- Pipe System. — 
First-Floor Flan, 



58 



STEAM AND HOT WATER 




REGISTER 
^ 8"x 12' 



REGISTER 
^ 6"x S" 



REGISTER 

io"x i2"HD" 



CEIUN6S 10 FT. HIGH Vlue 6 x 12" 'flue 6 x 10' 



FLUE 4"x 8 " 



FLUE 6X12 



Fig, 71. — Steam Indirect Radiation^ Two- Pipe System, — 
Second-Floor Plan. 



fitters' text book. 59 

Q. 6. Must proper means for exit of air a3 well as inlet 
be always provided when the indirect mode of heating is 
used ? What is it usually called ? 

A, Proper means must be provided for the exit of the 
cooler and denser air in a room before the warmer and 
lighter air in the hot air flue can enter. Ventilation is ac- 
complished in various ways — an open fire place, a fanlight 
over the door into the hall, even a partly opened window, is 
resorted to, but all are in a measure imperfect. The best 
practice is to construct flues for ventilation of ample size, 
lined with tin, galvanized sheet iron or glazed pipe, in the 
inner walls, well protected by non-conducting material. 
Opening into these are always placed, near the top and 
sometimes near the floor of a room, registers, with cords 
attached, so that either the top or bottom ones may be 
opened or closed. To quicken the action of these air cur- 
rents sometimes aspirating coils made of steam pipes are 
placed in the flues at the bottom or near the top so as to 
assist the exit circulation. Steam coils are sometimes 
placed beneath large ventilators located in the roof over the 
staircases and halls. The above described system is one of 
the best and simplest modes of heating, at the same time 
supplying fresh air to the buildings, or heating and venti- 
lating, as it is callei'i. (A two-pipe indirect system is illus- 
trated in Figs. 69, 70 and 71.) 

Q. 7. May the two systems of direct and indirect heat- 
ing be used in the same building in combination ? 

A, The two systems of direct and indirect heating, by 
steam, are often most effectively combined in the same 
building, the indirect being used for the flrst floor and the 
direct for the upper floors and the more inaccessible parts 
of the lower floor, thus securing an ample supply of warm 
fresh air to the house, which in moderate weather is suf- 
ficient to heat it by the warm air rising from the lower to 
the upper floors, the direct system being used only in very 
cold weather or when any room is closed and isolated from 
the halls and lower floors of the house. (A combination one- 
pipe steam system is illustrated in Figs. 72, 73 and 74.) 



60 



STEAM AND HOT WATER 



EE^GISIER 7' 




8 X 24",; „ CEILING 8 FT. HIGH 
8X8 



D n 



o 



Fig. 72. — Steam Direct and Indirect One-Pipe System. — Basem£nt 

Flan. 

Q. 8. Are there any combined systems of heating houses 
by heated air differing from that mentioned above ? If so, 
in what respect do they differ, and how do they compare 
in efficiency and economy ? 



FITTERS' TEXT BOOK. 



61 



TXJD 



WOOD SHED 
10*6 X 12' 



SERVANTS' ^^ 
HALL 

REGISTER 

—~s"x io"a 







'^,?'®|T,f ^ DUT'S CLOSET 

7 X ■'' -c n 



ij 1^==^ 



REGISTER 

'^io"x.io" 



\? fl 



I |CLOl I CLO. 



REGISTER I [-- 

io"x io"DlI"~ 



t 



fl REGISTER J "^^1^': 1[^ 




CEILINGS 12 FT. HIGH 

PIAZZA 




Fig, 7S ^Steam Direct and Indirect One Pipe System. — First^Floor 

Flan, 

A» There are other systems for heating houses, among 
them one called direct-indirect, a combination of some of 
the good points in both of the other systems, such as fresh 



62 



STEAM AND HOT WATER 



rTcLos.^ 




VERANDA 
CEILINGS 10 FT. HIGH 



Fig. 74. — Steam Direct and Indirect One-Pipe System,— Second- 
Floor Flan. 

warmed air combined with direct radiation in each room, 
all being under the immediate control of the person occu- 
pying the room. 

The radiator is usually placed beneath a window or 
near it and the fresh air is brought in by a special duct 
from the outside of the house to a point near the radiator 
and has a controlling valve in it, or the air is admitted by 
a special construction of the window sash, or frame, or by 
other sijnple means. This system is usually less in first 
cost than the indirect and very efficient when properly de- 
signed, constructed and managed. 



FITTERS' TEXT BOOK. 



63 



CHAPTER VII. 

HOT WATER HEATING. 

Question \. In planning and proportioning a self regu- 
lating hot water heating apparatus for dwellings and build- 



a 



n 



n 





Fig lb,— Hot Water System, Direct Radiation. — Basement Plan , 

ings of moderate size, what parts and appliances are neces- 
sary, and what are generally used ? 

Answer, In planning and proportioning a self regulating 



64 



STEAM AND HOT WATER 



hot water apparatus for dwellings and buildings of moder- 
ate size, the parts which are necessary and desirable are a 
boiler, main supply and return flow pipes, risers and return 
branches, supply pipes to the radiators and the returns with 
valves in one, an expansion tank and its trimmings, such as 




Fig, 76. — Hot Water System, Direct Radiation, — First Floor Plan. 



a glass gauge, and sometimes an automatic water feeder to 
keep the water up to a proper level in case of leakage in 
pipes ; overflow pipe, etc. ; also such appliances as are neces- 
sary to operate the boiler. A hot water direct radiation 
system is illustrated in Figs. 75, 76 and 77. 



fitters' text book. 



65 



Q, 2. How many different systems of hot water heating 
apparatus are used ? How do they differ ? 

A, There are two systems in use, the open and closed, 
or what may be called the low and the high pressure. 



^ 



\ 



ROOF 



CHAMBER 
NO. 3 



HUH- 16 SQ.FT. 

CHAMBER 

NO. 4 
1l'8"x s's' 
P ^ 



BATH ROOM 






o-jli. 



P 



M 



a 



CHAMBER 



CHAMBER 

NO. 2 




LIBRARY 

li'x la'e' 




Fig. 77. Hot Water System^ Direct Radiation. — Second-Floor 
Plan, 



Q. 3. How does the boiler used in hot water heating 
differ, if at all, from the boiler used in steam heating ? 

A. All kinds of boilers are used for hot water heating. 
Some are of the shell style, some a combination of cast and 
wrought iron pipes, and others are entirely of cast iron. 
There is but little if any difference between the boilers usee 



66 STEAM AND HOT WATER 

for steam heating and hot water heating, although many 
makers have a separate style for each purpose. In the steam 
boiler, when in use, the water is carried only to a certain 
hight, while in the hot water boiler the boiler and all the 
pipes above it are filled with water. 

Q. 4. Are the attachments the same ? If not, what are 
omitted or added, and why ? 

A. All of the attachments used on a boiler for steam 
heating are unnecessary when it is used for hot water heat- 
ing. Sometimes valves are placed in the main supply and 
return pipes, but ordinarily they are not used. A blow off 
pipe to the sewer with a valve in it is necessary. 

Q. 5. How are the main supply and return pipes run 
from and to the boiler ? Are the proportions the same as 
for steam ? If not, in what respect do they differ ? How 
and where are the return pipes connected v^ith the boiler ? 

A, The main supply hot water flow pipes are run out 
from the top of the boiler with a gentle rising inclination of 
about 3^ inch to 10 feet or more ; the incline for the return 
pipe is the same as that of the supply and toward the boiler. 
(See Fig. 78). 

The sizes of the pipes are made larger than those used 
for steam, and the capacity of the supply and return pipes 
is the same. All branches are run full, with as few re- 
ductions in size as possible. The supply and return are of 
the same diameter. The return pipes are always connected 
with the lower part of the boiler. 

Q. 6. Is the inclination given to the mains all one way, 
or are they different ? 

A. The inclination of the mains is always down toward 
the boiler in a hot water apparatus; in the riser branches to- 
ward the mains, in the radiator branches toward the risers ; 
in other words, all drainage must be toward the boiler. 

Q. 7. Are separate mains ever run from the boiler to 
each rising line of pipes, or are the supply pipes to these 
risers taken from one or more main pipes, or in both ways? 



fitters' text book. 



67 



A, Separate main supply and return pipes are often 
run from the boiler direct and back to it, particularly by 
makers of sectional cast iron boilers. This system virtu- 
ally makes each line of pipe and its boiler section a separate 
apparatus, but it also makes an expensive arrangement. 
The main supply pipes are usually run out from the top of 
the boiler, as with steam, and the branches to risers and 
radiators are taken out, and their returns connected with 
the main return pipe to the boiler, thus making a reliable 
and efficient apparatus. In some cases part of the system 



"?r°"-Q- M i. J! Ji Q-"". 

I ]tlNCUNATlON#M"lNiOFT. jtj fy |^ 

-^ f""" INCUINATICN 1^~ "To FT. 1 ;Zli j 



1 



^^EEf ^^^ ^ ^^ 

SIDE ELEVATION END ELEVATION 



CJi' 



Fig. 78. — Hoi Water System with Badiators on Boiler Level, 



is supplied direct from the boiler, the rest from the mains, 
as the case may require. 

Q. 8. How are the rising lines and their returns run ? 

A, The rising lines are run up from the cellar to the 
highest point where heating is required, the same as with 
steam. Sometimes the supply riser and return are run in 
channels in the walls or outside, together or separately, as 
may seem best. They are of the same size and the connec- 
tions to and from the radiators and their controlling valves 
are alike. 

Q. 9. Should a special stand pipe be run up to the ex- 
pansion tank, or may a line of risers and returns be used 
for that purpose, and how are they arranged ? 

A. Special lines are sometimes run up to and connected 



68 STEAM AND HOT WATER 

with the expansion tank, but a connection made with one 
of the risers and returns answers the purpose and secures 
constant circulation through the tank, thus preventing 
freezing when placed in an exposed position. Proper ar- 
rangements should be made for the expan^on of risers and 
the pipes connecting with the tank, 

Q. 10. What is an expansion tank ? Where is it placed ? 
What parts are attached to it, and for what purposes ? 

A. An expansion tank is a water tank or pot, placed in 
a position several feet above the highest radiator or coil to 
be supplied with hot water. It is made of galvanized sheet 
steel or iron or of cast iron, with an opening for the connec- 
tions to rising pipe in or near the bottom ; an opening for 
an overflow and vent pipe at the top ; an opening in the 
side above the centre for the connections for the water feed 
supply ; a glass water gauge connected up on the side of it 
to show the hight of water within it, and sometimes a ball 
and cock water feed regulator and attachments working 
automatically. Where there is no water works supply at 
hand a funnel is placed in its top so that it may be filled by 
hand when necessary, or it is pumped up from below. 
Other forms of tanks have been and are now used. Auto- 
matic gauge indicators are made, which, when placed and 
connected with the pipes of the system and located near 
the boiler, show the hight of water in the tank by the 
weight of the column of water in the pipes. 

Q, 11. Why is an expansion tank or pot used? Are 
they always used ? 

A. Expansion tanks or pots are used with all styles of 
hot water apparatus, whether of the open or closed circuit 
construction, low or high pressure. The action of an ex- 
pansion tank in a measure is like that of a safety valve on 
a steam boiler ; it allows the apparatus to relieve itself and 
prevents overpressure. With the closed system the air in 
the upper part of the tank is compressed when the expan- 



FITTERS' TEXT BOOK. 60 

sion of the water in the boiler, pipes, etc. is greatly in- 
creased by heat, and acts as a cushion or spring. 

Q. 12. What kind of radiators are used for hot water 
heating ? Do they differ from those used for steam heat- 
ing? If so, in what respects ? 

A. The radiators used for hot water heating are of the 
same general form and make as for steam. The pipes and 
sections, however, are connected both at the top and 
bottom. 

Q. 13. How are they connected with the risers ? How 
many valves are used on each radiator? How are the 
branch pipes run, and where are they connected with the 
radiators ? 

A. They are connected in a similar manner to steam 
with the risers, but one valve is generally used, placed in 
the supply or return branch connection pipe, as may be 
most convenient. 

The branch pipes from the riser to the radiator are usu- 
ally connected with the bottom of the radiator, but under 
certain conditions, as when on the same level with the boiler, 
it has been found better to connect the supply pipe with the 
top of the radiator on one end of the radiator and the return 
from the bottom of the opposite end. 

Q. 14. What kind of valves are used on hot water radi- 
ators ? Do they differ from those used for steam ? If so, 
in what respect ? 

A. The only valves used are on the radiators, with a 
blow off cock on the boiler. The valves used are gate, 
angle, corner, opposite angle, or any form which will give 
a free waterway. Sometimes a quick opening or plug valve 
is used. 

Q 15. Are air valves used on hot water radiators ? If 
so, why and under what conditions ? 

A. Air valves are generally used on hot water radiators 
where they are connected up at the bottom. The make of 
valves usually employed are what are called key air valves. 



70 STEAM AND HOT WATER 

These are opened only when the apparatus is newly filled 
and started up. When the connections are made with the 
top and bottom of the opposite ends of the radiator no air 
valve is required. 

Q. 16. Are there any disadvantages attendant upon the 
use of a hot water apparatus, direct or indirect ? If so, 
why ? How can they be avoided ? 

A. The principal objections to the use of a hot water ap- 
paratus are its high first cost, want of quick response when 
more heat is required, inability to be automatically con- 
trolled, its liability to freeze up and cause serious damage 
to the house and furnishings, and the length of time that is 
required for a radiator to cool after it is shut off. It, how- 
ever, has its advantages. Careful handling and attention 
reduce the risks and increase the comfort it gives by a 
uniform and healthful temperature. 

Q. 17. How should the pipes and iron work in the cellar 
be finished ? And the radiators and exposed pipes above the 
cellar? 

A, The pipe and iron work in the cellar should be 
finished with one or two coats of black varnish well laid on, 
except the bright work around the boiler and the indirect 
radiators. The radiators and exposed pipes above the cellar 
should be painted or bronzed either silver or gold, as may 
be desired. 

Q. 18. Is the felting or covering of steam or hot water 
pipes advantageous? Should risers in the walls be pro- 
tected, and how best done ? 

A, The felting or covering of either steam or hot water 
pipes as a preventive to the radiation of heat from pipes 
is very advantageous, particularly where the heat is not 
needed in the cellar, and also to protect them from freezing 
when run in exposed walls or places. Pure water of con- 
densation from steam or boiled water will freeze much more 
readily than ordinary or impure water. It is often neces- 
sary to leave the pipes uncovered in the cellar to protect the 



fitters' text book. 



71 



flooring of the floor above, as a cold floor invariably makes 
an uncomfortable room, so it is no loss when the heat is so 
utilized. The pipes in the cellars of dwellings should be 
run large with this object in view. 

Risers in the outer walls should always be protected by 
felting, mineral wool, wooden boards, or some other good 
non-conducting material. 

Q. 19. Is there more than one system or manner of run- 
ning pipes and operating hot water heating? If so, how is it 
arranged ? Can the risk of the water freezing in the pipes 
be obviated or guarded against? If so, by what means ? 



e^ 



XPAN8I0N iT \ 

TANK INCLINATION ^4 FN 10 FT. _ 



1 

I 

TradJI IJ^adTL. JJradTL. | Jrad.[ ^. 

• inclination m " in 10 ft. j^ _ 



[]rad. 

mRAD. 



s 



SIDE ELEVATION 



END ELEVATION 



Fig. 79. -Hot Water System.— Main on Top Story and Two-Pipe 
Risers Down, — Also Radiators on Boiler Level with Supple- 
mental Mains, 



A. There are two systems of arranging and operating a 
hot water apparatus — the open and the closed circuit, as be- 
fore stated. In the former an open expansion tank is used ; 
in the latter the expansion tank is closed and the whole ap- 
paratus works under pressure, more or less, as the situation 
requires (Fig. 79). Provision should always be made for 
drawing off the water in the pipes during cold weather 
when the apparatus is not in use_and also during the sum- 
mer season. 



72 STEAM AND HOT WATER 

Q. 20. How are railroad cars, offices, etc, on the same 
floor and level with the boiler heated by hot water ? Are 
there any risks and disadvantages connected with the sys- 
tem ? Is it safe and efficient ? 

A. Railroad cars, offices and apartments have been and 
are now frequently heated when the generator or boiler is 
on the same level as the radiators or heating coils, and in 
some cases when the radiating surface is below the boiler. 
In a generator or boiler made up of a coil or coils of pipe or 
other form and placed in a sheet iron shell or casing lined 
with fire brick, the main flow pipe is taken out of the top of 
the generator and often dropped down to the coil or radiator 
near the floor and the connection made ; or it may be car- 
ried overhead to some distant point, or along the floor, and 
connected up where desirable, the return main running 
along or below the floor back to and connected up with the 
boiler. The expansion tank is loc2-tcd near to and above the 
generator, and in the case of cars is placed above the roof 
in a closed box. Circulation coils of iron pipe IJ^ to 2 inches 
diameter are usually used for such purposes. 

To prevent the water from freezing in certain cases, as 
in isolated offices, railroad cars, etc., when not in operation, 
a saturated solution of salt in water is used. This form of 
apparatus is run upon the closed circuit or high pressure 
basis. With proper care in construction and management 
the risk is small, as the apparatus is tested to a much higher 
point than it is ever likely to go to. Its efficiency has been 
fully proven by many years of varied service. The parts 
are made chiefly of extra heavy small size wrought iron 
pipe ; the expansion tank of the best gun metal. 



FITTERS' TEXT BOOK. 



73 



CHAPTER VIII. 

SINGLE PIPE MAIN SYSTEM. 

Q, Has a single pipe main system of hot water heating 
ever been used ? How is it arranged and constructed ? How 
is the proper circulation of the water induced and main- 
tained ? What are its advantages, and how does it differ 
from other systems in use ? Is it reliable and effective ? 

A, The single pipe main system has been and is now 
used for hot water heating (Fig. 80). A single main pipe, 
which answers the requirements of both supply and return, 



r-J 



n \fm^} 



INCLINATION %' TO }^' IN 10 FT. 



V. T. 
BOILER 
U P. 



SIDE ELEVATION 



END ELEVATION 



Fig. 80 — Hot Water One- Pipe Indirect System.— Supply Taken 
from the Top of Main, Beturn to the Bottom of Main. 

is run out from the top of the boiler— tubular, sectional, 
cast iron, or other form in common use. This pipe, which 
'z of extra size, is run around the cellar near to the ceiling 
and is the starting point of rising lines and the branches 
to radiators on the floor above. After supplying all these 
I)oints, as above stated, it is run directly back to and is con- 
nected with the bottom of the boiler. Its inclination from 
the top of the boiler back to the bottom of the boiler is 
sometimes as much as 1 inch in 10 or 12 feet, or as the 
length of run and arrangement of pipes will admit. 

The branch supply pipes to the risers and radiators on 
the floor above are taken out of the top of the main pipe ; 
the returns from the same source are carried back to and 



74 STEAM AND HOT WATER 

are connected up with the sides and, when the proper ec- 
centric side outlet fittings can be had, as near to the bottom 
of the main as possible. All these branch pipes incline 
downward toward the main. 

There are two risers run up from the cellar for each line 
of radiators — supply and return. These risers are connected 
at their lower ends to the top of the main for the supply, and 
to the side or near the bottom for the return, as described 
above, all of the same size. The radiators are connected to 
the risers by branch pipes of like diameter, and they incline 
from the radiator down to the risers. The radiators used 
are the same as for other hot water systems and only one 
valve is used, generally placed in the supply pipe. Air valves 
are employed as usual. No valves are used on the mains or 
around the boiler. A blow off pipe run from the boiler to 
the sewer, with a brass cock in it, is all that is necessary. 

An open circuit expansion tank is placed at some point 
above the highest radiator, with all connections and trim- 
mings required as for other systems of hot water heating. 

The circulation is induced and maintained on the same 
principles as other systems, by the expansion and lightening 
of the water by heat. As the water in the boiler is heated 
it rises to the top and passes out into the main pipe, the hot- 
ter water being always on top. This passes out to the sup- 
ply branches, the risers and radiators. As the heat passes 
out of the water through the radiators, etc., it becomes 
heavier, descends by the return pipes to the lower part of 
the main where the water is cooler, and flows back with it 
to the bottom of the boiler, there to be reheated and forced 
out again into general circulation. 

The advantages claimedf or this system are simplicity, less 
first cost, efficient working, etc. While it may appear that 
little can be saved by the substitution of one extra large 
pipe for two of smaller size, yet those who have had long 
experience say there is, and disinterested and competent 
judges have said that where the parts are properly propor- 
tioned and put up the circulation is perfect and the efficiency 
equal to any other system used for buildings of moderate 
size. 



FITTERS' TEXT BOOK. 75 



CHAPTER IX. 

HIGH PRESSURE STEAM HEATING. 

Question 1. Has high pressure steam with a direct re- 
turn of the water of condensation from the radiating system 
back to the boiler been used ? If so, in what manner and in 
what class of buildings was it in the past or is it now most 
used ? What is the difference between the high and low 
pressure sysrem ? 

Ansiver. High pressure steam has been used for many 
years — in fact, from the first introduction of heating by 
steam in this country — for special purposes, particularly 
where high pressure steam had to be carried in the boilers 
for driving steam engines in factories, and where steam and 
hydraulic elevators were used in stores, office buildings, and 
factories of all kinds, or where it had to be carried a long 
distance before it could be applied to the purposes desired. 
All such places necessitated the services of a competent en- 
gineer. Low pressure steam was and is used in dwellings 
and small buildings where no power for machinery is re- 
quired, and where no specially skilled man is necessary. 
There is but little if any difference between the actual work- 
ing of the high and low pressure direct return steam heating 
systems. Greater care is generally taken in the construction 
-and erection of the former and increased strength is given in 
the various parts. The temperature of the steam used is 
the chief difference. The higher pressure having the higher 
temperature gives out more heat for a given amount of 
radiating surface. 

Q. 2. How is the apparatus arranged and the parts 
necessary constructed ? 

A. The apparatus and parts required are about the same 
as for low pressure — a boiler of any form which will safely 
carry the pressure required, generally of the horizontal 



76 STEAM AND HOT WATER 

tubular, vertical tubular, of wrought iron or steel plates, 
also sectionals of various forms, chiefly made of steel or 
wrought iron ; small pipes with drums, headers, etc. ; reg- 
ulating apparatus for draft, feeding, etc.; a two-pipe 
system of mains and returns; the same for risers and 
branches throughout. The radiators and coils are arranged 
in the same manner, and the connecting branches in all 
parts drip the same as for any two- pipe steam heating 
system. The connections to the boiler are the same. 

Smaller sizes of pipe throughout can be used in the high 
pressure system than in the low pressure, and advantage is 
taken of this by many, and fairly good work may result, but 
in modern practice, for the best work, there is but little dif- 
ference. A small saving in pipe, fittings, and valves may 
sometimes be effected, but often with a loss of efficiency. 

Q, 3. Is there any difference in the construction of the 
boiler ? If so, in what respect and why ? 

A. The boilers used are of the types above mentioned. 
Wherever sheets are used of either iron or steel, they are 
made thicker ; the riveting in the horizontal seams are made 
double, triple, or more, depending on the pressure ; the head 
plates are thicker, the braces are heavier, and all parts are 
more carefully put together. 

Q, 4. What changes if any are there required in the 
parts around the boiler, in the attachments, regulating ap- 
paratus, etc. ? 

A, The parts connected with the boiler are used for like 
purposes as those in low pressure work, but of heavier make 
with some difference in form. The main steam heating 
supply, power, and return water valves, checks and 
other valves are of the best make. The water column, glass 
water gauge and connecting parts ; also three gauge cocks 
of larger size and similar quality. A steam gauge, with reg- 
istry of from 120 up to 200 pounds per square inch, or 
more, if necessary, is used. The steam damper regulator is 
much larger and more po^v^rful, carrying a heavier weight 



FITTERS' TEXT BOOK, 77 

on a longer lever ; also a larger rubber diaphragm. The 
safety valve in general use is of mnch larger size, with a 
longer lever and heavier ball ; sometimes safety valves have 
strong springs in place of a lever and ball to keep them 
down in place. 

Q, 5. What difference is there in the manner of sup- 
plying water to the boiler ? 

A. The pressure of steam carried being too high gen- 
erally for the feed water to the boiler to be run in from a 
tank, the supply from the city water works, or other source, 
as used for low pressure boilers, some other means must be 
used. A feed water injector, a steam pump, a return 
steam trap, or other device is generall)^ used, and may be 
controlled directly by hand or automatically operated. 
The injector may be set so as to feed a limited amount 
of water constantly to the boiler. The steam pump may 
be similarly arranged or intermittently used. The return 
steam trap can be arranged so as not only to return the 
water of condensation from the heating apparatus of a 
building into the boiler, but to feed in any additional water 
necessary at the same time. 

Q. 6. What is a feed water injector, the principle on 
which it acts, how constructed, arranged, properly placed, 
and connected up ? 

A, A feed water injector is an instrument used for 
forcing feed water into a boiler, like a steam or other 
driven pump, but its mode of operation is different. The 
escape of steam under 100 pounds pressure into a vacuum 
is at the rate of about 2000 feet per second, and when this 
is concentrated to a small point and it strikes cool water, it 
is condensed and imparts a certain portion of its velocity 
and all of its energy to the water. When this is properly 
concentrated and directed the water is forced along to 
whatever point required, as into a boiler. Cold water, or 
even at 140^ can be used, but the warmer the water the 



78 STEAM AND HOT WATER 

less effective is the action of the steam, and above 140^ the 
results are uncertain or even prevented altogether. 

There are many patents on and makers of injectors. 
There are two kinds, single and double tube. The essential 
working parts are a steam inlet tube and nozzle and an 
outlet or water conveying tube or combining tube. The 
steam tube is generally conical outside, tapering toward 
the water tube; the inside is flaring with the large flare 
opening toward the water tube, or the reverse of the out- 
side. The water tube is flaring toward the steam tube and 
a little larger than the outside of it. They are brought 
near to each other, leaving an annular space between them 
through which the water enters. A lever connected with 
the steam valve stem increases or diminishes the amount of 
steam admitted and correspondingly the amount of water 
forced into the boiler. There is a steam supply pipe, also 
a water supply pipe and a water discharge pipe, all properly 
connected. The working parts are inclosed in a brass case, 
and a water overflow pipe is connected at the bottom. 

The double tube is a repetition of the parts of the single 
tube arrangement with some modifications. The lower is 
the sucking or water raising tube, and from it the water 
passes on to the second tube and by it is forced into the 
boiler. For a complete understanding of the injector a 
diagram showing sectional view must be examined. 

The single tube was the first used and in that form was 
patented by a Mr. Giffard of Paris, France, about 1850. It 
was at first considered paradoxical and a toy. But further 
examination proved its value. The double tube is the 
most perfect for lifting purposes and was invented by Mr. 
Korting of Germany. It will lift water at 150^ F., is not 
affected by variations in the steam pressure, and may be 
set to feed regular quantities for any length of time. In- 
jectors will work with steam pressures varying from sev- 
eral hundred pounds per square inch down to the ordinary 
exhaust from a steam engine, and feed water to boilers car- 
rying as wide a range of pressure as above named. 



fitters' text book. 7& 

The vocation should be as near to the boiler as possible, 
and all the connections as straight as possible. 

§. 7. What is a steam pump? How constructed, 
located, set up and connected for feeding a boiler and gen- 
eral pumping purposes ? What is the difference between a 
single and duplex or double cylinder steam pump ? The 
advantages of each form ? 

A. A steam pump is a machine used for raising and 
forcing water from one level to another into open receivings 
tanks or closed tanks, with or without pressure in them, as 
with a boiler, etc. Independent steam pumps were origi- 
nally made with one steam and one water cylinder placed 
on the opposite ends of a bed or frame work, the action 
being controlled by steam valves which were operated by 
an auxiliary piston, the latter being actuated by steam con- 
trolled by a small valve worked by tappets and adjustable 
arms attached to the rod connecting the steam and water 
pistons or plungers. Others were operated by the steam 
piston striking tappets in the steam cylinder at or near the 
end of each stroke, thus shifting the steam supply valves 
and reversing the motion. Others used a fly or balance 
wheel to carry the movement beyond the centers. 

The duplex steam pump has, however, largely sup- 
planted all the others. This is no more than two single 
pumps placed side by side on a bed, or the two steam cyl- 
inders and the two water cylinders are cast together. By 
a simple arrangement of arms and levers the motion of one 
pump, when near the end of the stroke, actuates the steam 
valves of the other pump, and the reverse, so that a quiet, 
easy and positive motion is obtained without dead centers. 

The location of a pump in relation to the rest of the ap- 
paratus is often a matter of convenience. If used for 
boiler feeding it should be as near to the boiler as it can 
well be located so as to be within easy reach of the en- 
gineer, but should be protected from the dust from the 
boiler room. It should be so connected with the boiler 
that the steam supply may come direct ; the water supplj^ 



80 STEAM AND HOT WATER 

should be ample, and the discharge from the pump carried 
directly into the boiler or through a feed water heater to 
the boiler, or, if desired, so arranged that it may be used 
for the house water supply in emergencies. But there 
should be a separate pump for the house supply water, for 
when exhaust steam is used for heating, the oil from the 
engines and pumps passes through the pump with the re- 
turn water of condensation from the pipes in the building 
before going into the boiler, and this affects unpleasantly 
any water for house use which might be passed through 
the same pump. 

Q, 8. What is a hot water feed tank or feed water 
heater ? How made, set up and connected up ? 

A, A hot water feed tank or feed water heater, as com- 
monly used for heating feed water for the boiler, is made 
of sheets of iron or steel like a boiler, with heads of the 
same metal, well braced. In one of these heads there is a 
large man hole for cleaning out, etc. They vary in size from 
30 inches diameter by 5 feet long, to 36 to 60 inches diameter 
by 6 to 12 feet long or more. Inside of this cylinder is 
placed a brass coil of IJ^-inch to 3-inch pipe or more. 
Where live steam is used for heating the water in the tank 
IJ^-inch pipe is usually used, but when the exhaust steam 
from the pumps and engines is used then the larger sizes of 
pipe are necessary. 

The form of coil varies. With the larger pipes the two 
ends of the coil are passed through one head of the tank and 
the joint made up with lock nuts and packing. Sometimes 
only two pipes, the length of the tank, with a return bend 
or elbows and nipple connecting them on the far end, are 
used. Often four lengths or more are required. With the 
small pipe a top and bottom branch tee or header with 
center outlets are placed inside of the tank, and as many 
lengths of pipe, connected by return bends, as may be re- 
quired, are used. The steam supply and return connections 
axe made through the head of the tank, or through the 



FITTERS' TEXT BOOK. 81 

top and bottom of it. This is a very simple and efficient 
form of heating tank. 

Q, 9. What is a Berry man feed water heater, how 
made, set up and connected complete for work ? 

A, Later on the Berryman feed water heater, now so 
well known, came into use. This is really only the perfect- 
ing in mechanical details of the tank or heater already 
described. The cylindrical part is the same, and the brass 
tubes within are bent with an easy sweep to a U-shape, thus 
providing for expansion and obviating joints. In this form 
very light pipes can be used. These are expanded into a 
cast iron head which is bolted on to the wrought iron 
shell. There is another head below this, thus forming a 
divided chamber or compartment and leaving a space be- 
tween the two heads. Across this is the division plate. 
One end of the tubes opens on one side of this plate, the 
other end on the other side, so when either the exhaust or 
live steam from the boiler comes into this space it passes 
into one end of the tubes, up through them, and down out 
through the other end. Thus the water which surrounds 
the tubes in the shell is very promptly heated and any sedi- 
ment or impurities in the water fall to the bottom, where 
they are blown out. The connections are made with the 
exhaust pipe from pumps or engines at the bottom on one 
side, the discharge being on the opposite side of the heater. 
The water supply to the boiler is taken out near the top, 
the cold water supply is introduced near the bottom, the 
blow off from the top and bottom of the water shell ; drips 
are taken from the bottom of the exhaust compartment. 

Q. 10. What other classes of feed water heaters were 
first used and are now in general use ? Their several advan- 
tages and defects ? 

A» Among the very first forms of heaters used (and some 
use it yet) was a coil of 1-inch or li^-inch pipe or larger, 
set in a cast iron casing, with holes in the top for the ad- 
mission and release of the exhaust steam. A relief pipe for 



82 STEAM AND HOT WATER 

carrying off the water of condensation was taken out at the 
bottom. The cold water supply to the coil entered at the 
bottom and the discharge of hot water was at the top. The 
trouble with such heaters is that the amount of absorbing 
surface is so small that the moment the pump begins to 
work, the water then in the pipe soon passes out and the tem- 
perature of the feed water is rapidly reduced ; besides all im- 
purities held in it must go into the boiler, for if they remain 
in the tube they will soon close it up. Many other forms of 
heaters are used, which are modifications of the three types 
described above or have straight tubes, with expansion 
joints, and are very like an ordinary shell boiler, 

Q, 11. What is a steam trap ? How made, set up, 
and connected complete for work ? How many differ- 
ent forms were or are now made, their special application, 
advantages and principles of action 1 

A, A common steam trap, as known in steam 
heating work, is an appliance used to relieve pipes and 
vessels containing steam from the water of condensation 
as formed, and at the same time to prevent the steam 
escaping. 

There are many kinds ; the action of some depend 
upon the differences in the expansion of metals; others 
the expansion of chemicals or the lighter hydro-carbons ; 
others the force of gravity, as in the difference between 
the weight of air or steam and water. 

Among the first used were those dependent upon the 
expansion and contraction of metals. They were called 
expansion steam traps, and were made with an outer case, 
generally of cast iron. Within this was a strip of brass 
curved to a certain shape, and made fast at both ends. In 
the center of this was placed a cap or valve, and below it 
a piece of pipe or an adjustable plug screwed into the 
casting. Sometimes this projection formed a part of the 
casting with a hole through it. This was the water out- 
let. The cap or valve rested upon this hole and closed it 
when steam came in the trap. When the water returned 



FITTERS' TEXT BOOK. 83 

and cooled it the metal strip contracted and the valve was 
lifted off its seat and the water allowed to flow out. It 
acted very much like some of the air valves of the present 
time, such as the Davis and others of like make. 

In others, like the Haws steam trap, the action is 
caused by the expansion and contraction of chemicals, in 
others of naphtha, or a combination with it of some other 
sensitive liquid, is used. Action is caused by expansion 
from extra heat. They run full open until the steam 
comes, then close quickly. These were good in their day, 
and a few are used now, but the metals become corroded 
and lose their sensitiveness in time and the chemicals or 
hydro carbDus leak out, or in some way lose their sensi- 
tive qualities and reliability ; the diaphragms also often 
break with their frequent bending and buckling. 

Joseph Nason finally invented the steam trap 
known so long and favorably as the Nason steam trap. 
This is made with an outer casing or pot with a cover 
bolted on the top, ha-vdng inflow and outflow channels near 
the rim or flange and on opposite sides. The channels 
which connect these with the interior are cast in the cover 
or upper part of pot. Inside of the pot there is a thin and 
very light cast iron open float with a valve on top attached 
to a stem in a tube. This float worked up and down as 
the pot was alternately filled with water of condensation 
or was discharged. There was a diaphragm inside of the 
casing which was attached to the cover of the trap. This 
served to direct the course of the water when it entered 
the casing. The float carrying the valve, when the case 
wa3 entirely empty, was down. When the inlet valve was 
opened the water from the steam coils, &c., passed into 
the casing through the channel cast in the trap cover ar d 
fell on the deflecting plate ; from there it passed into ^ le 
casing around the float, lifting it up and closing the c at- 
flow valve. When the float itself became filled with water 
its buoyancy was lost and its weight of material caused it 
bO descend, thus opening the discharge valve. When the 



84 STEAM AND HOT WATER 

float was emptied it lifted again and the action was re- 
peated. 

The stop valve, which is placed in the top of the cover, 
when open allows the water of condensation to be blown 
through directly to the receiving tank or the sewer with- 
out passing into the float or surrounding casing. 

There are many different forms of bucket or float 
steam traps made, some with one, others with two valves, 
very similar to the low pressure feed water regulators, 
only they are applied to very different purposes, the one 
being used to control the feed water to a boiler, the other 
to control the outflow of water from the steam pipes, at 
the same time preventing the escape of steam. Robert 
Berryman, the inventor of a feed water heater, was among 
the first to utilize this form of steam trap, and this, with 
his other or gravity form of feed water regulator, led to 
the production of what is known as the " automatic steam 
return trap. ' ' 

The steam trap is usually set up near the tank or pipe 
into which it is to discharge its contents, and is connected 
by an inflow and outflow pipe with a valve in each. 

Q. 12. What is an automatic return steam trap ? How 
made, set up, and connected complete for work ? What 
are the principles and causes of its action, and to what 
system of steam heating can it be best applied ? How 
many different general forms of steam return traps have 
been made ? 

A. The ''automatic return steam trap " is a device 
by the use of which the water of condensation formed in 
steam heating pipes, or other sources of supply, is re- 
turned automatically, and with but little if any loss of 
heat, directly back to and into the boiler. 

The two forms of this trap which first met with most 
public favor were the Blessing, or gravity trap, and the 
McNeill or bucket trap. The first relied solely upon the 
radiation of heat from the thin cast iron shell of trap for the 

densation of the equalizing steam ; the latter used the ex- 



FITTERS' TEXT BOOK. 85 

haust system and discharged its contents immediately into 
the atmosphere. Both worked well, but the latter much 
quicker. As the heat contained in the equalizing steam 
had to be lost in either way, the quicker it was done the 
better. All of the return steam traps introduced since 
then have been modifications of these two systems, chiefly 
in the valve gear, but the stationary or bucket form in 
some shape is now almost universally used. 

The " automatic return steam trap " was first pro- 
duced in this country and introduced by James H. 
Blessing of Albany, N. Y., before 1873. A modified form 
of a like machine for the same purpose had been used in 
France some years before. The form of trap first U3ed by 
Mr. Blessing was what he called his gravity trap. A cast 
iron frame work with two upright arms supported another 
frame and lever with knife edges at the side. This rested 
on the lower frame. On one end of this frame or lever 
hung a hollow cast iron sphere, and on the other end an 
adjustable counterbalance weight. To this sphere were 
attached two wrought iron pipes of different sizes, the 
lower or discharge pipe being one size larger than the 
uppar or receiving pipe. These were run out from 8 feet 
to 12 feet to obtain easy spring of the pipe and motion for 
the sphere. The receiving or top pipe was connected with 
a receiving pot, into which flowed the water of condensa- 
tion from the system of coils and radiators, and the dis- 
charge or bottom pipe was connected directly with the 
boiler, with check valve in each near the trap. A third or 
steam supply pipe of smaller size was taken directly from 
the dome of the boiler and connected with the valve case 
containing the steam equalizing trip valve. This case was 
connected with the top of the trap case or iron sphere. 
The whole apparatus was placed on the top of the boiler 
wall or on some shelf made for it, near to and above the 
boiler, so as to place the bottom of the trap case, when 
filled and down, at least 30 inches above the water line of 
the boiler, or more if possible. This was necessary so as 



86 STEAM AND HOT WATER 

to have a head or column of water sufficient to lift and 
keep open the check valve between the trap and the boiler 
during the discharge. The operation was simple enough. 
When the valve in the upper or receiving pipe from the 
pot below was turned on, and the air expelled from the 
sphere by means of an air valve placed on the top of the 
trap, the water from the heating coils was driven up by 
the steam pressure in the receiving pot, placed so as to 
drain all the return pipes in the building. After the 
sphere was filled it became heavier than the counterbal- 
ance weight on the other end of the frame, and went 
down. In doing so it tripped the equalizing valve and let 
live steam into the trap from the boiler, as before de- 
scribed. The pressures in the boiler and the sphere being 
balanced, the difference between the hight of water in 
the two gave the power necessary. The water from the 
trap lifted the check valve in the lower or discharge pipe 
and passed into the boiler. As soon as the sphere was 
relieved from the weight of water it became lighter ; then 
the counterbalance went down. This action tripped and 
closed the steam valve on the top of trap. The steam 
within the sphere then condensed, and the sphere was 
ready to be charged again and repeat the work. The prin- 
ciples of action described herein cover the mode of work- 
ing of all this class of traps. The difference is merely in 
the form and arrangement of parts of the mechanism. 

Another form of trap was brought out a little later — 
called the bucket or stationary trap. There was a pot or 
water receiving vessel of greater hight than diameter, 
with an extension or ear on one side in which worked a 
lever. The pot was made in two parts and bolted to- 
gether. Within this pot was an arm or lever with a 
square hole in one end through which passed a steel spin- 
dle. One end of this spindle rested and worked in a brass 
nut ; the other end rested in and passed through a stuffing 
box to the outside ; there it was fastened to a boss by a set 
screw. This boss formed a part of a lever with a long and 



FITTERS' TEXT BOOK. 87 

a short arm. In the latter was a pin. Within the trap 
shell was an open bucket filled with pine wood, with a 
loosely fitting cover over it. This acted as a fioat. When 
the water entered the trap a deflecting plate, which was 
hung beneath the water inlet, deflected the current to the 
sides of the shell. To the outer end of the steel spindle, 
after it pissed through the stuffing box, was attached a 
lever. From one end of this lever an adjustable counter- 
balance weight hung. On the front of the pot was placed 
the equalizing steam valve case, made of brass and con- 
taining two small valves, which were tripped by arms 
through which a spindle passed with a square on it. A 
round part of this spindle rested in a bearing in the cas- 
ing, and the other round end passed out through a stuffiog 
box. To this a plain upright lever was fastened. 

Above the valve box was pivoted a rocking arm, the 
ends of which were raised or lowered alternately. Four 
round weights, connected by two spindles and side rods, 
rested on this arm and rolled from one end of it to 
the other. As they moved from the boiler in pass- 
ing along, the spindles struck the lever which was 
made fast to the equalizing valve spindle, and thus 
opened or closed the steam supply or exhaust valves 
alternately. The rocking arm received motion from 
the pin on the short lever which worked in the slot 
in the rocking arm. A small steam supply pipe con- 
nected with the valve box. An equalizing pipe from 
the valve box to the top of the trap case, and an exhaust 
pipe with a stop valve in it from the bottom of the valve 
case, completed the parts. A pipe of ample size con- 
nected the receiving pot, which was located below 
the returns on the floor, and the top of the trap, with a 
check valve at the highest point. Another pipe of larger 
size was connected with a tee beneath the bottom of 
the pot. A short pipe from this extended down, and a 
flinge on the end of this formed the support of the trap. 
Another or discharge pipe, with a check valve in it, con- 



88 STEAM AND HOT WATER 

nected with the tee below the trap and ran into the boiler 
direct. 

The trap was usually placed upon the boiler wall, or on 
some suitable support near by. The action of this trap 
was like the other to some extent. The water of condensa- 
tion from the heating system, being collected in the lower 
receiving pot, was forced up into the trap shell above. As 
it entered and collected the bucket was lifted by it, aided 
by the counterbalance weight on the lever outside. The 
pin in the short arm of the same lever, working in the 
slot in the rocking arm, raised or lowered it, thus running 
the rollers from one end of it to the other, one or the other 
of the rolling spindles striking the lever on the equalizing 
valves and opening the steam or the exhaust. The action 
of the machine was noiseless, prompt and efficient, and was 
the type from which all the bucket machines now made 
have directly descended. 

While the working of both forms of trap was good the 
Blessing trap required a good deal of space, and depended 
upon the surface condensation of the equalizing steam 
alone, and thus required more time to fill. The bucket 
form of trap occupied less space, and by promptly dis- 
charging the equalizing steam instead of waiting for it to 
condense quicker action resulted and much more work 
could be obtained from a trap of the same size and cost. 
There are many different kinds of the bucket form of 
trap now on the market. 

The automatic return steam trap can best be ap- 
plied to high pressure systems, or a combination of high 
pressure on the boilers and low or medium pressure on the 
coils. It is not desirable or necessary in ordinary low 
pressure work. 

Q, 13. What is an automatic steam pump governor 
or regulator ? How is it made, set in its proper position, 
and connected up for work ? What are its special uses 
and how applied ? How many different forms of it are 
now or have been made ? What were or are now their 



FITTERS' TEXT BOOK. 89 

special advantages ? To what systems of steam heating 
is it usually applied ? 

A. An automatic pump governor or regulator, as 
now used, is a device for the regulating of or governing 
the speed of a steam pump by reducing or increasing the 
supply of steam to it. Its present application is particu- 
larly to the returning of the water of condensation from 
the pipes of a steam heating system direct, or through a 
receiving tank and a steam pump to the boiler. 

Two styles are mainly used. The former represented 
by the Blessing, Kieley and others; the latter by the 
Worthington, Dean and many others. In the first form 
the governor and pump are usually separate machines, 
although set near each other ; in the latter form the re- 
ceiver, regulator and pump are all on the same bed and 
form one machine. In the Blessing and like systems the 
form and construction of the apparatus are closely that of 
their steam return traps, placed on or below the boiler 
floor instead of, as with the trap, on the wall above. The 
rise and fall of the bucket inside of the trap case through 
the lever and spindle outside, or directly, work the steam 
supply valve to the pump. The return water comes into 
the top of the trap shell and passes out to the pump 
through the pipe connected with the bottom. The rela- 
tive amounts of the inflow and outflow regulate the ac- 
tion of the apparatus. 

The Worthington and other like forms of apparatus for 
this purpose are a duplex steam pump, a receiving vessel 
with a float and balanced valve inside, connected with a 
steam supply pipe and valve to the pump, so arranged as 
to automatically operate the pump as the amount of con- 
densation increases or diminishes. The forerunner of all 
these machines was a feed water regulator patented and 
introduced over 25 years ago by Robert Berryman, the in- 
ventor of the well-known feed water heater which bears 
his name. There was a hollow sphere, a counterbaleince 
weight on the opposite end of a lever, two long pipes, one 



90 STEAM AND HOT WATER 

from the top, the other from the bottom of the sphere. 
The Tipper was connected with the boiler at the water 
line, the lower below it in the water. A lever was attached 
to the steam supply valve of the pump, which was oper- 
ated by the rise and fall of the sphere through a connect- 
ing link. The apparatus was located on or near the boiler. 
When the water in the boiler was up to its proper level 
the mouth of the upper pipe was covered, the sphere was 
full of water and down, the steam valve was shut oft and 
the pump stopped; as soon as the water fell below its 
proper level the mouth of the upper pipe to the machine 
was opened, the steam rushed into the sphere, the water 
in it returned to the boiler, the sphere rose up, the steam 
supply was opened, and the pump started to feed again. 
It can be readily seen how all forms of pump governors 
could follow from this. 

Each maker of such an apparatus claims certain ad- 
vantages, but simplicity, compactness, reliability in work- 
ing and facility for prompt repair are essentials. 

Q. 14. How many different methods have been used 
for returning the water of condensation from a steam 
heating system back to the boiler ? How many are now 
in use and how arranged ? 

A. There have been four different methods used to 
return the water of condensation from high pressure sys- 
tems of steam heating back to the boiler with the least 
possible loss of heat : 

1. By direct return to the boiler, the full boiler pres- 
sure being carried from the boiler, through the mains, 
risers, heating pipes and returns back to the boiler, the 
same as in a low pressure gravity apparatus. 

2. The boiler steam pressure, or less, is carried through- 
out the heating system and the water returned to a Nason 
common steam trap, from thence delivered to an open 
tank, a tank with only atmospheric pressure or but lit- 
tle more. From this it is pumped into the boiler. 



fitters' text book. 91 

3. The boiler steam pressure, or less, is carried through- 
out the heating system, and the water of condensation 
from the radiators and coils, both above and below the 
water line of the boiler, is collected in a receiving pot and 
by means of an automatic return steam trap is returned 
to the boiler. 

4. The boiler steam pressure, or less, is carried through- 
out the heating system and the water of condensation 
from all sources is taken into an automatic steam pump 
governor or receiver, and from there returned automat- 
ically to the boiler by the steam pump. 

All of these systems are now in use, but the tendency 
is, in the large steam plants, to carry high steam pressure 
on the boilers for power purposes, and moderate or low 
pressure steam in the heating pipes. 

^.15. Is there any difference in the sizes and modes 
of running the steam and return mains for high pressure 
from those for low pressure ? If so, why ? 

A. There is some difference between the sizes of pipe 
used for high pressure and low pressure. Steam of high 
pressure is of a higher temperature, consequently the 
same volume of steam will give out more heat under high 
pressure than low. So it has been proven in practice that 
the amount of radiating surface required to^heat two 
rooms of the same size and exposure is about 30 per cent, 
less for high pressure than for low. High pressure varies 
from 50 to 100 pounds per square inch or more. The man- 
ner of running the pipes is about the same for high pres- 
sure as for the best class of low pressure work, proper in- 
clination and a separate relief pipe from the end of the 
steam main being returned to the boiler direct, with sep- 
arate globe and check valves, &c. 

Q. 16. Is there any difference in the sizes, mode of 
running, or number of the steam risers and returns needed 
in high pressure from those in low pressure heat- 
ing ? 



92 STEAM AND HOT WATER 

A. The number of risers and returns run for high 
pressure are the same as for low pressure two-pipe work. 
The sizes may be made less, but the best practice requires 
pipes of ample dimensions. 

Q. 17. Is there any difference in the radiators or coils, 
their manner of setting up, arrangement or construction 
for high pressure and those for low pressure heating ? 

A. There is no difference between the radiators and 
coils used for high pressure and those for low pressure. 
The construction, arrangement and connections also are 
the same. 

Q, 18. Is there any difference in the valves used, 
their arrangement or connection with the radiators or 
coils ? 

A. The valves used in high pressure steam work are 
usually made of heavier pattern than those for low, al- 
though the better class of contractors use the better grade 
of valves for both. 

Q, 19. What is the difference in the expansion in the 
pipes when used with high pressure and when used with 
low pressure ? How should it be provided for ? What 
are the advantages or disadvantages of high pressure ? 

A. The expansion of metals is dependent upon the 
temperature they are subjected to, and as high pressure 
steam conveys more heat than low pressure, it follows that 
the expansion of iron pipes containing the former must be 
greater than those containing the latter. 

It should be provided for by what are called breaks in 
the mains, or change of direction, or any other simple 
means, but so-called '^ expansion joints" or sleeves are 
seldom effective and always troublesome. High pressure 
steam has its advantages in cases where the distance from 
the point of generation to the point of distribution is great, 
where the amount of radiating surface is necessarily lim- 
ited, and where power is required. 



FITTERS' TEXT BOOK. 93 



CHAPTER X. 

HIGH AND LOW PRESSURE STEAfl 
HEATINQ AND POWER PLANT. 

Question 1. In the past pi act ice in steam heating h<yW 
have the systems varied, and what is now considered the 
best practice for the best classes of buildings ? 

Answer. In the past, and even at present, steam heat- 
ing has been applied in a great many different forms by 
different designers and makers, but they may be generally 
classed under low, medium, and high pressure, exhaust 
and exhaust combined with live steam. All these gi-ades 
of pressure have been used with direct, indirect, direct- 
indirect, or in some manner combined and modified. 

In the beginnicg, low pressure steam was chiefly used 
in private dwellings and buildings of moderate sizes. In 
factories and large buildings generally either exhaust 
steam was utilized, or full boiler pressure, with a direct 
return to the boiler of the water of condensation, was the 
practice. This was then of moderate pressure, say from 
40 to 60 pounds per square inch. As the pressure carried 
on the boilers for d riving machinery, elevators and elec- 
tric light plants, etc., for economical working was in 
creased to a much higher point, it was considered unneces- 
sary or inadvisable to carry full boiler pressure on the heat- 
ing system ; so reducing valves or steam pressure regulat- 
ing valves were brought into use. 

With these appliances and a large reduction of the 
working pressure in the steam pipes came the necessity 
for some means for returning the water of condensation 
back to the boiler. The receiving tank with a pump was 
among the earlier arrangements, but this was not auto- 
matic and gave trouble to regulate, and in many other 



94 



STEAM AND HOT WATER 



respects was unsatisfactory. Then came the automatic 
return steam trap, having its own receiver with a closed 
circuit ; then one with a broken circuit and exhaust quick- 
ening action was used. Next came the steam pump gov- 
ernor, being its own receiver and regulator combined. Fi- 
nally the receiver, regulating valve and steam pump were 
combined, forming one compact machine. Each step has 
been made in compliance with the necessities of co-ordinate 
branch work, and they have become so intimately bonded 
together that it is very difficult to say where one begins 
and the other ends. It is therefore becoming more im- 
portant each year that any one attempting to practice in 



REDUCING VALVE' 



S INCLINA TIONlk IN 10 FT. If R 

—^^ &— f ^ JL >-^" ' ' " ■ ' g 4. 

^^'' M5I \^ 'NCLINATIONl^"|N 10 FT?j f 



HIGH PRESSURE BOILER 



("So— — — <|. 
:COCK 



.iU"' 



RETURN PUMP 




SIDE ELEVATION 



END ELEVATION 



Fig. 81. — Two-Pipe Exhaust and Low Pressure System. 



steam heating or practical steam engineering should be 
well trained in both branches of the business, for they 
must assume the responsibilities, at some time, of both 
installing and practically running the apparatus. 

In the best classes of modern buildings the exhaust 
steam from the steam pumps for the elevators, the water 
supply pumps, and electric light and power engines are all 
utilized for heating the feed water and the buildings. 
Then, if this is insufficient, provision is made in the steam 
main, by means of a pressure regulating valve, by which 
any deficiency may be made up by an additional supply 
of hteam taken directly from the boiler. Fig. 81 shows a 
two-pipe exhaust and low pressure steam heating system. 



FITTERS' TEXT BOOK. 95 

Q. 2. In desigDing and arranging a first-class modem 
steam heating and power plant what parts are required, 
how and where located and arranged ? 

A. In designing a modern first- class steam heating 
and power plant the parts and appliances necessary for a 
complete apparatus, as above described, are the high 
pressure boilers with all castings, set up in brick work, 
the smoke flues connected with the main smoke stack, 
fire tools, etc., complete ; all necessary pipe connections 
around and between the boilers, as feed and blow-off pipes, 
steam heating and power mains and connections and 
valves, safety valves, damper regulators, steam and glass 
water gauges, feed water steam pumps and receiving 
tank, or receiver and pump combined, feed water heater, 
a blow^ off tank, feed water injector or inspirator, as it is 
sometimes called ; oil, steam and water separator ; all 
steam, exhaust and drip pipe connections around the 
steam pumps and engines; main exhaust pipe carried up 
to the roof, with an exhaust cap and sometimes back 
pressure valve. The drip pipes run to a tank cesspool 
or sewer outside of the main sewer trap to the build- 
ing, the separator to be placed in the main power pipe to 
engines, etc., with all valves, cocks, check valves, etc., 
complete ; the reducing or steam pressure regulating valve 
placed in the steam heating main, usually near the boiler ; 
the steam supply and return mains ; all branch pipes, 
risers and connections complete. Also the radiators, 
coils, radiator valves, air valves, air pipes, painting and 
felting. These constitute the main parts and appliances in 
a modern first-class steam heating and power apparatus. 

Q. 3. What kind of boilers are used, and in what re- 
spects, if any, do they differ from those used for low 
pressure heating ? 

A. The boilers used are of the horizontal tubular type 
largely ; sometimes the Babcock & Wilcox, of the water 
tube style, or the Sterling, Heine or other form -all built 



96 STEAM AND HOT WATER 

with extra care and of extra strength for high pressure 
work. They differ from those used for low pressure 
chiefly in the extra strength of parts. 

Q. 4. Is the setting the same ? If not, in what respects 
does It differ ? How are the boiler smoke flues connected 
with the main smoke stack ? 

A. The general arrangement of the setting is about 
the same as for low pressure with the same class of boiler. 
The smoke flue connection between the boiler and the 
main smoke stack is sometimes made by a brick arch 
over the top of the boiler, forming a flue connection with 
the main stack in the rear ; sometimes by a sheet iron pipe 
connected with the smoke box in front, and carried to the 
side or center and rear, wherever the main stack or flue is 
located. 

Q. 5. What parts and castings are required for setting 
any of these boilers ? How made and set up in their 
proper places ? 

A, The parts and castings are the same as for regular 
high pressure work, as before described, with ornamental 
cast iron sectional fronts, with smoke, fire, ash pit and 
flue cleaning doors ; flame and arch plates, grate bars and 
bar bearers, buck stays, tie rods, etc. 

Q. 6. What attachments and regulating parts are 
required ? Where set up and how connected ? How are 
the dampers of special construction set up and applied ; 
their advantages ? 

A, The attachments are the same as for a regular 
high pressure apparatus, as before described. The reg- 
ulating attachments are of various kinds, formerly a 
steam damper regulator, after the style of the Clark, and 
very much like the one used for low pressure, only of 
stronger make, with heavier bowls, diaphragm, lever and 
weight, pivoted and set upon a stand and the end of the 
lever attached to a rod, which operates the pivoted damper 



FITTERS' TEXT BOOK. 97 

in the boiler smoke flue. This regulator is a very simple 
and fairly effective device. Recently damper regulators 
have been made which are more sensitive, working within 
even }^ pound range of pressure per square inch on the 
boiler with a good draught, the old Clark being satisfactory 
with variations of from 2 to 5 pounds. But the simplicity 
of the former is lost in the latter, the pressure of steam 
from the boiler acting directly on a piston or indirectly 
through a column of water formed by the condensation of 
steam on the piston, or its equivalent, a diaphragm of 
metal, with a counterbalance, weight, &c. This causes 
the action required through the lever on the pivoted 
damper and increases or checks the draught. 

Q. 7. What parts and appliances are generally used 
for feeding water to the boiler, and in what respect do 
they differ from any other, and why ? 

A. The same appliances are used for feeding water to 
the boiler as in any high pressure work. Sometimes a 
steam pump alone, of Worthing ton or other good make, 
but often a feed water injector is added, in case of an 
accident to either. The steam pump for supplying water 
for use in the building is also so connected with its water 
supply and discharge pipes that it may be used for either 
purpose. In many cases a steam return trap has been 
used for that purpose, with or without a feed water 
heater. When an extra water supply to the boilers is 
required for various purposes, or if all of the steam is not 
condensed in the water returned to the boilers, a jet of 
cold water is admitted into the receiving pot and fed to 
the boiler with the return water from the house, even if 
a heater is not used, thus rai^^ing the temperature of the 
water admitted, but lowering that of the returns from the 
heating apparatus, and reducing it to a more moderate 
degree when it rises in the trap. 

Q. 8. What is a " separator," how made, applied and 
connected up ? What are its advantages in a steam plant ? 



98 STEAM AND HOT WATER 

A, A separator or eliminator is a device used for 
separating the steam when passing out of a boiler to an 
engine, pump, etc., from the entrained water which is 
often carried along with it in its rapid flow from the 
steam space of the boiler to the engine cylinder. A like 
device is often used for the purpose of freeing the exhaust 
steam from oil after it passes from the engine or pump 
cylinder toward the heating apparatus, so as to prevent it 
from collecting in the pipes, coils and radiators, and 
eventually clogging them up. The principles of action 
are the same in all these devices. The breaking up of the 
current of steam and changing its direction, sometimes 
giving it a spiral motion, are the most effective means 
used. This with the slight retardation which results 
from it has proved most successful. The forms used 
have been most varied — corrugated, spiral shaped sur- 
faces and tubes, wire nettings, small tubes, cones with 
spiral wings on its surface, and many other forms ; all of 
these, with some form of water or grease receptacle placed 
below, fitted with a glass water gauge and a drip pipe, 
and connected to a common steam trap of some form with 
valves and pipe connections to the receiving tank or 
sewer. These have proven of great assistance to high 
speed engines, but a properly designed, constructed and 
managed boiler should not foam or carry over its water, 
but furnish dry steam. The forcing of boilers, too small 
to do the work, is more often the cause of trouble than 
anything else. So the separator, or eliminator, as it is 
sometimes called, acts for the engine as the steam safety 
valve does for the boiler, and prevents serious trouble by 
taking out the water before the steam enters the cylinder. 

Q. 9. How are the steam pumps set up and connected 
with the boiler and water supply, and how best utilized ? 

A. The steam pumps for various purposes are located 
where most convenient to the places and for the purposes 
for which they are to be used, and not too distant from 



fitters' text book. 19 

the source of steam and water supply. They are usually 
set up on a solid brick foundation capped with a fine axed 
blue stone top from 3 to 5 inches thick or more, with hold- 
ing down bolts and nuts. The pipe connections are, with 
the main steam pipe pump supply from the boiler, of a size 
larger than the opening into the pump ; also all drip 
pipes from the front and rear of each cylinder are united 
into one and carried to the sewer or cesspool. 

The exhaust pipe connections are made first with the 
feed water heater, if there is one there thoroughly dripped, 
then run to the main steam heaticg pipe and connected 
with it beyond the redu3ing valve wltli a braach from the 
exhaust main. Both of these pipes have valves in them 
and are run to and connected with the main exhaust pipe 
rising to the roof at some convenient point, with a drip 
pipe and siphon trap at its bottom When the exhaust 
pipe rises above the roof an exhaust cap or pot is screwed 
on it and a relief pipe run from it to the house leader. 

Q. 10. Are feed water heaters used? How placed, 
connected up, and operated in connection with the steam 
feed pump to the boiler ? 

A, Feci water heaters are invariably used and located 
as conveniently near the engines, pumps and boilers as 
possible. Sometimes they are ^et vertically on a con- 
crete or brick foundation ; sometimes place J horiz -ntilly 
on a frame work near the floor, and agaia suspended 
from the floor beams above. In either position the heater 
is connected to the cold water feed supply from the pump, 
and the hot water discharge pipe from it is connected 
with the boiler with valves, etc., complete; the main ex- 
haust pipe, a branch from it, with a valve m each at 
their junction, is carried directly to the heater and con- 
nected with it on the side or top, depending upon its con- 
struction and position. From the opposite side a similar 
pipe with a relief pipe for the water of condensation is 
<;onnected with it. From thence it is run back to and 



100 STEAM AND HOT WATER 

joined with the exhaust main to the house, or to the roof, 
with valves so arranged that the exhaust steam may be 
carried directly from the engines and pumps to and 
through the heater and from thence to the heating main, 
to the roof, or it may be run directly from the engines 
and pumps to the heating main, or direct to the roof. 

§.11. What is a steam pressure regulating valve ? 
How utilized and connected up ? How made, and of 
what value to a steam heating plant ? How many differ- 
ent forms are there and their advantages ? 

A, A steam pressure regulating valve is a device used 
for reducing and regulating the pre ssure of steam in cer- 
tain pipes, usually for steam heating, and is generally 
applied so as to make up any deficiency which may occur 
when utilizing the exhaust steam from the engines, 
pumps, etc , for heating. It is so constructed and ar- 
ranged that the volume of steam required may be fully 
maintained, but the limit of pressure not increased. 
When the exhaust is not used it simply maintains a uni- 
form pressure in the pipes with steam direct from the 
boiler by opening or closing the valve to suit the demand 
for steam. 

Among the first of these was one put upon the market 
about ten years ago by Handren & Ripley, marine en- 
gineers, of New York City. To describe it briefly, it 
resembled a damper regulator turned upside down, with 
a valve box above it. The spindle passed through the 
lower part and rested on a rubber or metal diaphragm. 
As this spindle attached to a balanced valve was moved 
up and down by the action of the steam from the lower 
prt ssure side of the valve the controlling valve was 
opened or closed, more or less, thus increasing or diminish- 
ing the volume of steam which passed through it. 

The construction of all those which have followed are 
on the same general principles— sometimes a rubber or 
corrugated metal diaphragm, inclosed in a case, one, 



FITTERS' TEXT BOOK. 101 

or even two, spiral springs, and a balanced steam valve ; in 
others a lever and counterbalance weight in place ol! 
springs, all so arranged that when set to carry a certain 
pressure in the mains or elsewhere as soon as the pressure 
rises above that pomt the valve closes down a ad dimin- 
ishes the flow of steam. It is of great utility in exhaust 
steam heating, as it would be very annoying to be called 
constantly to watch and open or close the supplemental 
valve by hand. It is also used for many other purposes. 

Q. 12. What is a hot water receiving and blow 
off tank ? How made, where located, how connected with 
the return water mains and the steam pump, and of what 
special use and advantage is it as applied, and what is its 
general relation to the rest of the apparatus ? 

A. A hot water receiving and blow off tank is a 
receptacle into which flows the water of condensation 
from the pipes of a heating system, and is from there put 
back into the boiler by a pump or other means, as before 
described. It is usually made of sheets of wrought iron 
or steel riveted up, with heads of like material. All the 
return pipes are brought in at the bottom, or near it; the 
suction pipe from it to the pump is placed a little above 
the bottom, and the blow off to the sewer at the lowest 
point. The vapor or relief pipe, to prevent the accumu- 
lation of pressure, is connected at the top and carried to 
the roof, or into the rising exhaust pipe if not much used. 
The tank is sometimes set in a pit made below the floor 
level; at other times above the floor, on brick piers or an 
iron stand, as the location may require. In a low pressure 
apparatus, as this really is, the tank is very desirable, as 
it takes the place virtually of the boiler in the smaller 
system. Sometimes pressure is carried in the tank and a 
safety valve is placed in the relief pipe. Under such 
circumstances we have a complete low pressure apparatus 
from the reducing valve through the steam mains, risers, 
coils, radiators and return mains back to the tank, which 



102 STEAM AND HOT WATER 

represents the low pressure boiler. Valves and check 
valves should be placed in all pipes where desirable around 
the tank, so that it may be shut off completely when 
necessary. 

When used as a blow off t^nk for the boilers, as required 
in Nevv York City, the tank should be connected with the 
blow off pipe from the boiler by cocks, so that the water 
from the boiler may be blown directly into the tank and 
from there into the sewer, or to the sewer direct. 

Q. 13. How many different steam heating and power 
supply mains are genernlly run out from the boiler, and 
for what purposes ? What is the advantage of taking out 
more than one ? 

A. As generally arranged one steam heating and one 
power steam supply main are run out from opposite sides 
of the dome, usually front and rear, of each horizontal 
tubular boiler, or like connections in other forms of boil- 
ers. They are run in this way to prevent conflicting 
action, which would liksly oc2ur if a supply for two differ- 
ent purposes were taken from one pipe. The dome forms 
a large reservoir in direct connection with the boiler and 
furnishes full boiler pressure to either pipe; besides the 
rush of steam is not all to one side, but more evenly 
divided. 

Q. 14. Is there any differen e in the sizes, in design- 
ing or manner of running the mains for a low and high 
pressure combined system, or an exhaust steam supple- 
mented by live steam from the boiler system of heating, 
from the regular practice when arranged for low pressure 
alone ? 

A. There is no difference in the sizes, in designing or 
in the manner of running the mains in a first-class low 
pressure system and a combination high and low pressure 
or exhaust system. All parts, except those specially 
required for reducing pressures, &c., are the same. 

Q. 15. Is there any difference in the number, sizes, or 



FITTERS' TEXT BOOK. 103 

running of the risers and their returns and branch con- 
nections ? If so, in what respects, and why ? 

A. There is no difference in the number, sizes, or the 
running of the risers, returns or branch connections 
between the combined high and low pressure and exhaust 
systems and the best low pressure work. 

Q, 16. In very high buildings how is the expansion in 
the risers provided for, also in the lateral branches and 
connections ? 

A. In very high buildings the expansion in the rising 
and return pipes is provided for by one or more breaks, 
with swinging joints. These swing pipes are usually run 
between the beams and under the floor when possible, or 
in other suitable places above the floor. Ofcher devices 
have been proposed and tried, such as corrugated disks of 
copper, &c., so placed and connected up with the rising 
pipes as to take up their expansion, but the breaks in the 
pipes, when properly put in and in sufficient numbers, 
accomplish the desired object in a simple manner. 

Q. 17. In what respects, therefore, if any, does a mod- 
ern high class system differ from the old low pressure 
system after the steam passes the reducing valve ? 

A. In reality there is no difference between the sys- 
tems above described after the steam passes the reducing 
valve, as it is then, as usually operated, only a low or 
medium pressure system, and it should be so treated and 
managed. 

Q. 18. Is the regular high pressure system, with direct 
return to the boiler, much used now ? If not, v/hy not ? 

A. The regular high pressure system, with a direct 
return to the boiler, is not much used now. The strain on 
the pipes is great, and there is no advantage in proportion 
to the disadvantage ; so steam of lower pressure is carried 
in the pipes and some form of artificial return, such as has 



104 STEAM AND HOT WATER 

been herein described, is used, and better circulation and 
effect are thus obtained. 

Q. 19. What kind of radiators are usually used in 
modern first-class buildings ? In factories or other work 
baildings ? 

A. In modern first-class buildings, either the wrought 
iron vertical pipe radiators or cast iron vertical pipe or 
section radiators, which are of many shapes and designs. 
In factories, stores, work buildings, coils of all kinds are 
used, some placed along the walls, others suspended from 
the ceiling. 

Q. 20. What class of valves ? How made and finished 
in each case ? 

A., The valves are generally some form of a soft disk 
valve. They are generally nickel plated, with polished 
trimmings, but the plain metal valves are used also. 

Q, 21. What air valves, with or without air pipes, and 
their connnections are used ? How made ? 

A. Air valves are generally used, some depending 
upon the expansion of metals, others of some composition. 
Some forms are without air pipes, but the safest and best 
arrangement is with them. These are connected into 
mains in the cellar and carried to a sink or cesspool 

Q. 22. How are the radiators and exposed pipes above 
cellar finished ? The iron work and pipes in the cellars V 

A. All pipes and iron work below the first floor are 
usually black varnished. On the first, and above, gold or 
silver bronzed, except in factories, where in work rooms 
they are black varnished. 

Q, 23. Is it advantageous to have pipes in the cellar 
felted or covered ? If so, why ? What means are used, 
different kinds, and their advantages ? 

A. It is advantageous to have the mains and other 
pipes in the cellar covered, when the heat is not required 



fitters' text book. 105 

there, and in certain cases it is even preferable to felt the 
pipes, and put coils, many different kinds are used, in for 
any extra heat required. 

Q 24. What other appliances are used in these modem 
buildings ? Is the steam contractor usually required to 
make the steam exhaust and drip connections to any of 
them? 

A. In later years the introduction of elevators oper 
ated by steam, hydraulic power or electricity has added 
to the responsibilities of the steam heating contractor, as 
the steam supply, exhaust and drip pipes, with their varied 
combinations and complications, call for the exercise of 
much ingenuit3% skill and good judgment in their arrange- 
ment, and the tendency is to increase rather than diminish 
this responsibility. Contracts for all the pipe connections 
for the steam, drip and exhaust to elevator pumps are 
usually given to them. 

Q. 25. Are the elevators and their connections ever 
included in the heating and power contract ? 

A The contractors for steam heating are seldom 
called upon to take the contracts for elevators, but the 
tendency is to concentrate as much as possible all con- 
tracts under one head. The results, however, are not 
promising, as the general contractor wants a profit for 
his risk. The sub-contractor must either charge so much 
more or slight his work, for competition is too close to 
admit of much margin for profit. 

Q. 26. Are the electric light and power engines and 
their connections ever included in the steam contractor's 
bid? 

A. The electric light and power engines are some- 
times included in the steam heating contract ; the boilers 
are almost invariably placed with them ; the steam sup- 
ply, exhaust and drip connections are usually placed in 
their hands. 



106 STEAM AND HOT WATER 

CHAPTER XL 
EXHAUST STEAM HEATING. 

Question 1. How is the exhaust steam from the 
elevator steam engines or pumps and the various boiler feed 
and other steam pumps and electric light engines in 
modern buildings utilized ? 

Answer. Exhaust steam from the engines of a power 
plant has long since been used for heating mills and fac- 
tories of all kinds where the power used was constant, but 
its introduction into the heating system of stores and other 
public buildings, alone or in combination with live steam 
direct from the boiler, is of more recent date. The intro- 
duction of steam pumps and power engines has furnished 
the amount of steam required, and economy in working 
demanded some further service for it after it passed 
through the engines, (fee, as the amount of heat it still 
retained was large and valuable. Modern and improved 
modes of utilizing it to the greatest advantage are so com- 
plete that in many cases little or no aid is required direct 
from the boiler. 

Q. 2. What is the benefit in its use alone or with live 
steam direct from the boiler ? 

A. The benefit derived from its use is simply the difier- 
ence between utilizing the exhaust and throwing away 
into the atmosphere an amount of heat often sufficient to 
warm the whole house and then abstracting that amount 
of heat directly from the boiler in the form of live steam 
to make good that waste. It would be about as'rational 
as to throw into the ash pile a shovelful of coal for every 
one placed in the boiler furnace. Of course where there is 
not a sufficient amount of exhaust steam for the purpose 
requ^""3d it must be made up from some source, and the 



FITTERS' TEXT BOOK. 107 

mode and manner described before lias proven most satis- 
factory. 

Q. 3. How is it best applied, alone or in combination 
with live steam ? 

A. As to which is the best plan, to use exhaust steam 
alone or in conjunction with live steam, undoubtedly if 
you have a sufficient amount of exhaust steam there is no 
necessity for aid, but there are days and hours in extreme 
weather when the demand may be increased and the sup- 
ply diminished. Then the supplementary supply is most 
convenient and even absolutely necessary. 

Q. 4. How many different ways is it generally util- 
ized ? How con«?tructed and arranged ? 

A, There are two ways of utilizing the exhaust steam : 
1. When it is introduced into the regular steam heating 
system as usually set up, from below or through the steam 
mains and risers. 2. When the main exhaust pipe from 
the engines and pumps to the roof is utilized by placing a 
back pressure valve near Ihe top and taking off the dis- 
tributing supply mains from it by outlets placed near the 
ceiling on each floor, then running around and dropping 
down to each coil (Fig. 82). The returns from each line 
. of coils are collected into one return pipe line and carried 
down to the cellar, there united with the main return and 
carried to the receiving tank, the water of condensation 
from there being returned to the boiler, 

Q. 5. What new arrangement has been made for 
facilitating the circulation of exhaust steam in the heating 
pipes ? How is it arranged and operated ? 

A. A new arrangement and mode of operating all 
steam systems is by exhausting the air from the radiators, 
coils and pipes, thus removing one of the chief causes of 
sluggish circulation and obviating the necessity of carry 
ing steam pressure above the atmosphere in the system ; 
in fact, many plants are now being successfully worked 



108 



STEAM AND HOT WATER 



below atmospheric pressure. The removal of the air from 
the system enables the steam to more fully reach all parts 
of the radiating surface, consequently the transmission of 
heat is more rapid. When working in the ordinary way 
the pressure of steam within the coils, radiators and pipes 
forces or pushes the air to the point where the air valve is 
supposed to take it off. But air being elastic and expan- 
sive, very often refuses to bo so handled; so it is like 
trying to push a rope before one to a point where it is 



BACK PRESSURE 
^— VALVE 

■.>s- 




D. R. I D. R. 

■A U : 4 L : ^ 

^ -A — --«. -J" H 






INCLINATION 1^ IN 10 FT. 



P 

k 1 



RETURN PUMP 



RETURN PUMP coCK " 

END ELEVATION 



SIDE ELEVATION 
Fig. 82. — Exhaust System — Main on Top Story. 



needed. With the new system it acts by induction, so in- 
stead of a push it is a pull, and is so much more effective. 
The parts used and their application are most simple. 
An ordinary ejector (not injector) of small size is coi:- 
nected with the end of the air main in the cellar. Into 
this main all the air risers and branches to the automatic 
air valves in tha system are connected. To this ejector is 
connected a small steam pipe, taken from any proper 
source, or a small water pipe from a high pressure hy- 
draulic elevator tank or other good source of water supply 
tmder pressure. This being introduced into the ejector 



FITTERS' TEXT BOOK. 109 

and passing out, induces a current and a partial vacuum 
in its wake, and so draws the air out from the pipes and 
radiators with it. After the radiator is exhausted of air 
the steam rushes in and the automatic air valves close. If 
it should accumulate again, the same action is repeated. 



110 STEAM AND HOT WATER 



CHAPTER XIL 

POWER FAN OR BLOWER SYSTEM OF 
STEAM HEATING AND VENTILATING. 

Question 1. What is the povver fan or blower system in 
steam heating and ventilating work ? How arranged ? 
What parts are required and how made ? Has it been 
much used and how long ? 

Answer. The power fan or blower system in steam 
heating and ventilating work is one of the best in the 
whole range of heating and ventilating appliances. Its 
object is the furnishing of fresh and pure warmed air to 
the various rooms and apartments in buildings, generally 
of a public character, and of large size. The high first 
cost and the after care and attention required prevents 
its introduction into smaller houses. The parts required 
for a complete apparatus are the cold fresh aii supply' 
ducts, the warm air distributing chambers and ducts, and 
outlets or delivery controlling valves or registers, as they 
are called, the heating coils, a steam engine, or other form 
of propelling power, a power fan, and all parts and attach- 
ments necessary to properly operate the same. 

When a means of cooling the incoming air in summer 
is required, instead of heating it, as in winter, an ice rack 
and chamber are constructed, or some other artificial 
means of lowering its temperature is devised. 

Q, 2. How many different forms Cir arrangements of 
parts of this sytem have been used ? What advantages 
have each ? 

A. There have been about four different modes of gen- 
eral arrangement of this heating system used, besides modi- 



FITTERS' TEXT BOOK. Ill 

fications of the kinds, class, and the materials used for 
radiating surface. 

The first is where the cold air is drawn directly into 
the power fan from the cold air ducts, and by the fan is 
driven through the heating coils, etc., located near it, the 
heated air then passing into the main pipes or chambers 
for distribution and through the smaller pipes throughout 
the building. 

The second is where the cold air is drawn from the 
cold air ducts through a primary heating coil and is 
slightly warmed before passing through the fan, and by it 
forced into the main heating coils to ^e fully heated, and 
from thence passed into the main pipes or chambers for 
distribution. 

The third is where the cold air, from the cold air 
ducts, is first drawn by the fan through the heating coils, 
etc., located near it, then forced by ifc into the chambers 
and the large and small pipes for distribution. 

The fourth is where the cold air is drawn by the fan 
from the cold air ducts direct and forced along other 
large and small cold air ducts to the point where the radi- 
ating surface is located, which is usually at the foot of 
the hot air rising pipes ; the cold air is then passed through 
each coil or heating stack, is heated, and rises up to the 
point of delivery in each room. 

The advantages claimed for the first arrangement are 
that the air being cold when it enters the fan a greater 
volume of it can be forced through it in a given time than 
if the air is heated and expanded before it enters the fan. 
The advantages claimed for the second are that the cold air, 
before it reaches the fan, is drawn through the primary 
coil, or stack, in which any exhaust steam or other source 
of heat, which might otherwise be lost, is utilized, and the 
c'aill taken off the air, in very cold weather. This prevents 
the main coils or stacks from being frozen up In very 
moderate weather the primary coil would give heat enough 



112 STEAM AND HOT WATER 

to the incoming air without the steam being turned on the 
main coils. The advantage3 claimed for the third arrange 
ment are that the cold air is drawn by the action of the 
fan through the main heating coils or stacks and thor- 
oughly heated before it enters the fan, and then it is 
forced into the distributing pipes. This drawing action, 
it is contended, gives better results, even if the air has 
been already expanded, than the forcing of cold air 
through the heating coils. 

Q. 3. How are the heating coils arranged or placed ? 
How many different kinds are used and how made ? 

A. The location of the coils in relation to the air sup- 
ply, power and mode of distribution are given above. The 
mode of construction and manner of setting up are varied. 
In times past the heating coils for this purpose were gen- 
erally constructed of 1-inch or 13^-inch wrought iron pipe 
made up in the form of box coils and set up in brick 
chambers at the foot of each rising hot air main, or in 
one large brick chamber near the fan. In latter days 
the brick chamber has been succeeded by the cheaper 
form of galvanized sheet iron, protected by wood or felt 
or some non-conducting material. The distributing pipes 
are almost always made of galvanized sheet iron, sus- 
pended from the floor beams above or placed on special 
supports. 

The heating stacks are now often made up of a number 
of cast iron indirect heating sections, imited by nipples 
or other modes of connection. In these can be used live 
steam from the boiler, direct, high or low pressure ; ex- 
haust steam alone or in combination ; all completely 
under hand control by valves, etc , or arranged for auto- 
matic action, 

Q. 4. How are the cold air supply inlets arranged ? 
In what relation to the power fan and why so placed, and 
of what made ? 



FITTERS' TEXT BOOK. 113 

A. The cold air supply inlets are arranged so as to 
take the supply from the point where the purest air can 
be obtained, from the roof of the building, or at an interme- 
diate point, which is generally best, for if near the earth 
or from the roof, dust, foul gases from sewer pipes or 
other sources can be drawn in, but between these points 
the best quality of air seems to be obtained. These ducts 
are often built of brick as a part of the structure or sepa- 
rately, as may seem best. Sometimes they are made of 
galvanized iron, boxed in with wood or fire proofing. 
They vary in form with the circumstances and surround- 
ings. As the power fan can draw air from any quarter 
its location, as regards the points of the compass, is not 
essential for success. As a general thing, however, the 
distance from the mouth of the opening of the fresh air 
duct to the point of its delivery to the fan is fully con- 
sidered, as the greater the length of the duct the greater 
is the friction to be overcome, the power required, and 
the greater the first cost as well as cost of operating. 

Q. 5. How are the hot air ducts arranged ? Of what 
material made ? How run and what special care is re- 
quired in construction ? 

A, The hot air ducts are sometimes made of brick 
plastered on the interior or even lined with metal so as to 
make a smooth surface and lessen the friction of the air 
passing through them. Again, vitrified or glazed pipe 
has been used to advantage, as it has a smooth interior 
and is a moderately fair non-conductor of heat. In mod- 
ern structures galvanized sheet iron pipes are used, and 
are run near the ceiling in the cellar or basement sus- 
pended from the beams. They are of ample size in good 
work. All changes of direction are made without short 
bends, and the Y principle is universally used. The in- 
terior should be free from obstructions of any kind, in 
eluding sudden diminishing of the diameters of pipe. 
Where required it should be by gradual inclines. 



114 STEAM AND HOT WATER 

Q 6. How is the hot air carried to the different rooms 
and compartments to be heated ? What relation is there 
b3tween ventilation and heating ? 

A The hot air is distribated to the various rooms, 
halls and compartments requiring heat by vertical, hori- 
zontal, or slightly inclined pipes, and at the various out- 
lets controlled by hot air registers. These pipes should 
be of ample size, run as straight as possible, with easy 
curves and smooth interior surfaces. In ordinary indi- 
rect heating, when there is an inlet for fresh, warm air, 
there should be an outlet specially provided for the outlet 
of impure or cooler air. With the use of the power fan, 
however, the means is given in a greater degree to force 
the circulation, so that if any reasonably fair chance is 
provided for exit we have a sure means of obtaining both 
heat and pure air. Thus, a supply of warm air and pure 
air by this means is made as positive and ample as may be 
desired. 

Q. 7. How are power fans or blowers usually made 
and set up ? 

A Power fans or blowers are usually, under present 
designs, made of steel— the spindle, the arms, and the 
paddies or blades form the moving frame work of the fan 
or blower proper. This is sometimes set up and partly 
inclosed by a brick setting At other times it is inclosed 
in a sheet steel casing. The air enters at the center of the 
fan and the discharge is at the periphery, above or below, 
as may be desired. They are arranged with the air en- 
trance on one side of the casing and the discharge at the 
periphery. When these fans are designed for exhausters 
their construction is somewhat modified. 

Q. 8. By what means are they propelled ? How are 
the steam engines, etc., made and set up, and how con- 
nected with the power fan or blower ? 

A. These power fans for heating and ventilating systems 
are usually driven by belts from shafting propelled by 



FITTERS' TEXT BOOK. 115 

steam engines, water power, electric power or any other 
means most convenient. Sometimes the steam engines or 
electric motors are connected directly to the shaft or 
spindle of the fan. Some of the steam engines are of one or 
two cylinders, some are set horizontally, on a level with 
the spindle of the fan, others are set vertically and below 
the spindle, and others vertically and above the spindle. 
All of these are directly connected with the shaft or 
spindle of the fan. Others are driven by belting from 
a pulley on a countershaft, or directly from the fly wheel 
pulley of the engine. 

Q: 9. What is the plenum system ? How arranged for 
heating public halls, theaters, prisons, hospitals, etc.? 
Are these worked under pressure ? If so, what are the 
advantages ? 

A. The plenum system is an arrangement of parts 
wherein the hot air from the power fan is driven into a 
close chamber, under a slight pressure, and from this the 
distributing pipes carry the air into the various parts of 
the building requiring heat, their exits being controlled 
by registers or valves. In theaters the chamber is gen- 
erally beneath the auditorium floor, in churches in a 
similar position, and in other buildings wherever the gen 
eral construction of the building will allow. With this 
system the whole house is generally under a slight pres- 
sure. This being the case, the tendency is always for the 
air within it to fljw outward, so that there can be no in- 
ward draughts, but all outward. This action is sometimes 
quickened by exhaust fans placed above the ceiling, 
between it and the roof. By increasing the pressure 
in the plenum, however, an ample outflow of impure air, 
with a proper number of outlets, can be insured, and per 
fecb circulation secured at less expense. Wherever heat 
ing and ventilating are combined there must be some loss 
of heat in securing thorough change of air, but this is 
the price which must be paid for the better results 



116 STEAM AND HOT WATER 

Q. 10. What other arrangements are sometimes made 
for combined heating and ventilating ? Is the exhausting 
sytem ever used alone, or in combination with the force 
system ? 

A. Many different arrangements and forms of the 
parts and mode of distributing are made, and each claims 
some advantage. In one it is to force the hot air from 
the fan directly into the main distributing pipes, deliver- 
ing it at or near the ceiling ; in others about 6 to 8 feet 
above the floor. Again, outlets near to or in the floor are 
connected with the main exhaust air ducts, which lead to 
and are connected with an exhaust fan. Some ambitious 
individuals have introduced the heated air into theaters 
high up, even above the proscenium arch, and endeavored 
to draw it down through openings in or near the floor by 
an exhaust fan, thus attempting by force to reverse the 
natural order of flow of hot air. They must surely pay 
the penalty, either by failure or by the use of greater 
force to overcome the natural tendency of heated air to 
rise. It is difficult for some to see where the advantage 
comes in. The first claim is that in the working of this 
system a more even distribution of heat is secured with- 
out drafts. This is not reasonable, and many facts go to 
prove the contrary. "Keep the feet warm and the head 
cool," is an old saying. Because of the location of the 
exits in this system, the coolest air and the strongest 
draughts must be and are near the floor ; the head would 
most likely be kept hot and the feet cold, which is about 
the case when in operation. The second idea is also fal- 
lacious, that the foul air in a room or apartment, being 
heavier and cooler, falls to the lowest point and should 
be at that point removed. This may be to some extent 
true when all the air in the room is cool, but heated air 
will rise to the highest point it can go, whether pure or 
impure. So when drawing it down by superior force it 
must become even more expanded and attenuated and 
likely to contain less of the life giving principle. 



fitters' text book. 117 

There are various inodes of distributing the heated air, 
whether worked on the plenum or direct delivery sys- 
tem, with or without the aid of the exhaust system. In 
theaters it is sometimes admitted through the auditoriuni 
floor, by means of pipes with curved outlets having per- 
forated tin coverings ; also in the risers between the 
floors on which the seats in the dress and family circles 
are located ; again at the side of the house and through 
registers in the aisles— in fact, almost every way one can 
imagine, as circumstances may require or fancy dictate. 

The exhaust system is sometimes used alone. The fan 
is located either in the attic or in the cellar, depending 
upon whether the pull up or pull down system is used. 
In either case the air is induce I to pass through the heat- 
ing coils, becomes rarefied and lighter, and is further atten- 
uated by the action of the exhausting fan. 

Q. 11. What are the different modes of distributing 
the heated air in these buildmgs ? 

A. The different modes of distributing the heated air 
in buildings have been incidentally described. As before 
said, it varies in each system, and often in the same sys- 
tem, according to the ideas of those in charge of the work 
or the whims oP owners, designers and constructors ; but 
one general rule should govern all— seek to be natural or 
follow Nature's laws and you will be as near right as it is 
possible to be. 

Q. 12. Is a complete system of heating and ventilating, 
in some form, much used at present ? 

A, A complete system of heating and ventilating com- 
bined has been often attempted. Some have been better 
than others, but there is still room for improvement. To 
better it is what all should strive after now. The first 
cost is the chief objection, but in time that will be re- 
duced. 



118 STEAM AND HOT WATER 

CHAPTER XIIL 
DESIGN. ESTIMATE. SPECIFICATION. 

Question 1. What are the first points to be ascer- 
tained and decided upon beforehand in '' laying out," as 
it is often called, or designing a steam or hot water heat- 
ing plant ? Is the same routine required in every case, 
large or small ? 

Answer. The first point to be ascertained and decided 
upon before ' ' laying out ' ' a steam or hot water system 
is its geographical position, as this determines the aver- 
age and lowest temperature during the winter season. 
The next is its local position. Is the building isolated, 
on a hill or in a valley, in a block, or on high or low 
ground ? How does it face, north, south, east or west ? 
Of what material is it to be or is built, of stone, brick, 
iron or wood, or a combination ? What is the thickness 
of walls, and are they hollow or solid ? If a wooden 
house, is non-conducting material used in its construc- 
tion ? Is there to be a combination of brick, stone and 
wooden franie work, and is the building to be one, two 
or twenty stories high, and for what purposes is it to be 
used ? 

Next obtain a drawing of the building showing the 
sizes of the rooms, their relation to eacbi other, the halls, 
entrances, &c., and the hight of the various ceilings, 
window sills, &c. If there is no drawing in existence 
then make a sketch of the building, taking accurately 
the dimensions as called for, and lay out a plan yourself. 
Guess at nothing; time and money will thus be saved in 
the end. Then arrange the dimensions for each room, 
corridor and all other places to be heated separately, on a 
rheet of legal cap paper, as it is the best suited for the 
purpose, and figure out the cubic contents of each sepa- 



fitters' text book. 119 

rately, so that you may be able to apportion each. No 
lump guesses should ever be resorted to by any one with 
any knowledge of the business. When this is done ascer- 
tain how much glass and exposed wall surface there is 
to the room, and calculate its cubic contents. 

After this proceed to lay out the work on the plans, 
showing where the radiators for the direct or the direct- 
indirect heating, or the stacks for indirect in the cellar and 
the registers upstairs, are to be located ; where the boiler is 
to be placed in the cellar and the direction and manner 
of running the mains, with all other statements as to sizes, 
&c., requisite. The same routine should always be 
gune through with in every piece of work, as it often pre- 
vents serious mistakes and is the very best record which 
can be kept of the work as executed. It saves a good 
deal of time and is a ready reference to experience gained, 
good or bad, successes or mistakes. 

Q. 2. What does the ratio between the cubic contents 
of a room or compartment and the amount of heating 
surface mean ? How is it determined and computed ? 
How are the cubic contents of a room calculated 'i What 
is necessary for a clear and accurate determination of the 
proportion of parts required. 

A, The ratio used in estimating the amount of heat- 
ing surface required for warming any room or apartment 
is the relative proportion between the radiating surface 
and the cubic contents, and depends upon the kind of 
surface and surrounding influences, the location and 
size of the room or rooms, and the exposure. Many 
variable circumstances and conditions must be considered. 
A small room requires proportionately more heating sur- 
face than a larger one, as it has more wall or cooling sur- 
face in proportion to its cubic contents and the doors 
and window surfaces are generally proportionately 
greater, and so on. The cubic contents of an empty 
room are its length multiplied by its breadth and by its 
hight. There may be much or little furniture placed 



120 STEAM AND HOT WATER 

in the room, all of which affects the results obtained 
Generally a liberal allowance is made for all contin- 
gencies. 

Careful consideration and good judgment, backed by 
experience, are the best guides, as all data obtained from 
other sources are only approximate and a mere starting 
point. What would answer well in one case might fail in 
another, as modifying circumstances might arise which 
could not have been anticipated and given due care and 
attention. The amount of wall surface and the glass 
surface should be carefully taken into consideration. 

Q, 3. What is the next step to be taken after this is 
done *? Where should the heating surface be located for 
the best results for direct, indirect, direct-indirect ? 

A, The next step to be taken after the cubic contents 
of the rooms, the glass surface and the wall surface are 
figured up and placed in proper columns, is to find the 
best or most available location for the radiators. The 
heating surface should be shown on the plans, whether 
direct, indirect or direct-indirect, drawn to a scale and 
marked with the amount of square feet of surface, or the 
kind and number of pipes or sections. This saves much 
trouble in the end, and must tally with the specification. 
As to the best location for the heating surface, only one 
rule governs — place it as near as possible to the point 
where the least heat is likely to be or the cold comes 
from. Usually this is the north or west side, near glass 
or thin walls or doors opening outward; or on the other 
hand, where it may be allowed by the owner, architect, 
or future mistress of the house, whose wishes are often 
the closing argument. 

Q 4. What proportions of parts are recognized as 
reliable and how should they be modified to suit variations 
in climate, surroundings and other circumstances for hot 
water, low pressure steam or high pressure steam ? 

A, The amount of heating surface in a room varies. 



fitters' text book. 121 

as aforesaid, with the size, exposure, amount of glass 
and wall surface, &c., also whether it is to be heated by 
low pressure steam, high pressure steam or hot water. 
The differences bet ween these are in the amount of heat 
each contains, or carries, and can radiate within a given 
time, and this depends largely on the rapidity of circula- 
tion of the steam or hot water within the pipes, the differ- 
ence in their temperatures and that of the objects and air 
surrounding the heating surfaces, and whether direct or 
indirect. 

As there must be some starting point, low pressure 
steam with direct radiators can be taken as a standard 
to be installed in a fairly well built brick house to be used 
as a private dwelling, situated in a small town in a mod 
erately hilly or rolling country, within, say, 50 miles of 
New York City, the house being isolated and facing north. 

The parlor is in front, the dining room in the rear of 
it, the reception room on the opposite side of the hall to 
the parlor and the library back of it. Next to the din- 
ing room, as an extension, is the butler's pantry, with the 
kitchen beyond it. On the second floor four bedrooms 
are located over the main lower rooms, the bathroom 
and children's playroom being over the kitchen in the 
extension. In the attic are three sleeping rooms and one 
storeroom. 

In this arrangement we have a type of a modern house 
of medium size and cost often found, which would be 
expensive enough to admit of the use of a steam heating 
apparatus. If there are bay vnndows in the sides of the 
parlor and sitting rooms, both of them facing north, with 
regular windows in front, the proportions of heating 
surface to the cubic contents would be about 1 to 60, 
properly distributed. In the dining room, on the west side, 
1 to 70 ; in the library, on the east side, 1 to 65, or 70 
as it often requires more heat in proportion than in the 
others. A parlor should be warm, a library likewise, a 
dining room a little less so, and a sitting room the same 



122 STEAM AND HOT WATER 

as the parlor. The lower floor of a house, including the 
halls, should be well heated, as the heated air rises from 
them to the upper floors. The bedrooms in this house 
could be put at about 1 to 75 or 80, and bathroom 1 to 
60 or 70. Those on the west side of the house should be a 
Httle warmer, so in case of sickness they might be used. 
Some prefer cool bedrooms. 

From this scale we may proportion others, as, for 
example, in a block the front rooms could be reduced five 
to ten points, the others in proportion to exposure. The 
radiators may be divided and with valves arranged so as 
to be able to use a part or alL For indirect heating all of 
these proportions should be increased from 20 to 30 per 
cent, or more for low pressure steam. 

For hot water direct radiation about the same ratio 
is used as for indirect low pressure steam, and for in- 
direct hot water as much as 20 to 40 per cent, above 
direct hot water. For high pressure steam about 20 to 
30 per cent, less surface is used than for low pressure steam 
direct, and for indirect the same as for direct low pres- 
sure. As before stated, this is based upon the use of 
vertical tube radiators for direct and cast iron sections, 
prime surface, for indirect. When wrought iron hori- 
zontal coils are used a further reduction may be made 
for direct heating. 

For hot water heating in a climate like that near New 
York, where it rarely goes below zero of the Fahrenheit 
scale, some designers use for parlors, sitting rooms and 
general living rooms of a residence 1 square foot of direct 
radiating surface for every 30 to 40 cubic feet of space, 1 
square foot of surface for every 3 square feet of glass 
exposed, and 1 square foot of surface for every 30 square 
feet of exposed wall surface. 

For library and dining rooms 1 to 30 to 45 cubic feet 

Glass 1 to 3 square feet 

Exposed wall 1 to 30 squaie feet 

Reception halls and rooms 1 to 40 to 50 cub'c feet 



fitters' text book. 128 

Glass 1 to 3 square feet 

Exposed wall 1 to 30 square feet 

Main halls, first floor 1 to 30 to 35 cubic feet 

Glass 1 to 3 square feet 

Exposed wall 1 to 30 square feet 

Chambers. ,,.1 to 50 to 65 cubic feet 

Glass 1 to 3 square feet 

Exposed wall 1 to 30 square feet 

Nurseries 1 to 45 to 55 cubic feet 

Glass 1 to 3 square feet 

Expi^sed wall 1 to 30 square feet 

Bathrooms 1 tc 30 to 40 cubic feet 

Glass 1 to 3 square feet 

Exposed wall 1 to SO square feet 

The above is for bedrooms about 65°, library, &c., say 
70°, and bath 75°. 

School looms 1 to 60 to 85 cubic feet 

Glass 1 to 3 square feet 

Exposed wall 1 to 3 ) square feet 

Factories a:2d stores 1 to 65 to 90 cubic feet 

Glass 1 to 3 square feet 

Exposed wall 1 to 30 square feet 

Halls and churches 1 to 90 to 150 cubic feet 

Glass 1 to 3 square feet 

Exposed wall 1 to 30 square feet 

For indirect coils and stack, &c., from 40 to 70 per 
cent, more than for direct radiation ; some even carry it 
to 80 per cent, when cast iron sections are used. All of 
these, it must be remembered, are for hot water heating. 

As to the sizes of the cold air ducts for indirect work, 
some designers allow for the first floor % square inch, 
net internal area, for every square foot of radiating sur- 
face in the indirect heating stacks ; for the second floor, 
J^ square inch for every square foot, &c. Hot air flues 
for the first floor to be J^ to 1}^ square inches net area for 
each square foot of surface in the heating fetack ; for the 
second floor, f{ to % square inch to every square foot. 
In hot air regis'iers only the net area of openings should 
be allowed, which is about one-half to two-thirds of the 



124 STEAM AND HOT WATER 

nominal opening. The friction of air currents must 
also be taken into account. 

Q. 5. After the amount of heating surface is deter- 
mined, what is the next step ? After the total amount 
of surface is added up, how are the size and proportions of 
parts of the boiler determined ? What is the relative 
proportion of boiler heating surface 1 or high and low pres- 
sure steam and hot water, and of the grate surface of the 
boiler to the absorbing surface ? 

A. After the amount of heating surface is provided 
for, the next step is to ascertain the size of the boiler re- 
quired to supply it easily and promptly with the steam or 
hot water necessary. After the total amount of heating 
surface needed in square feet is added up, then the pro- 
portion of the heat absorbing surface in boiler to radiat- 
ing surf ace in rooms, &c., is determined. These propor- 
tions vary with the evaporative efficiency of the boiler. 
All sorts of claiQis are made for the results from boilers 
of different makers. Some tests are made when the 
boilers are new and all the absorbing surfaces are clean; 
others carry water over, or foam, when hard driven; 
others are so much subdivided in their water space as 
to have but little solid water in them, nothing but spray 
and foam, and very little account is taken of the fuel con- 
sumed. It is merely claimed that they will supply so 
much radiating surface. 

A good boiler for heating purposes should have ample 
grate surface and fire box, an extra amount of heat ab- 
sorbing surface and a good draft. This means a proper 
size of smoke flue, and sufficient tube or smoke area for 
the hot gases to pass up easily at a moderate temperature 
and velocity from the grate. The heat should be thor- 
oughly absorbed in passing through and out of the 
boiler, which is shown by a moderate temperature in 
the smoke pipe, say from 300 degrees to 400 degrees, or 
less if possible, while the fire in the meantime is bright 
and lively. The relative proportions of the^ absorbing 



FITTERS' TEXT BOOK. 125 

surface, sometimes called "heating surface," in the 
boiler (if vertical or horizontal tubular styles are used, 
which are usuall}^ considered the standard), and the radi- 
ating surface in the building, including mains, branches, 
&c., are from 1 square foot in boiler to 4^ square feet 
or 53^ square feet, and even up to 10 square feet, of radi- 
ating surface in rooms. The latter some claim for their 
boilers. The proportion of grate surface to the absorb- 
ing surface of a steam boiler should be from 1 square foot 
of grate to 30 or even up to 40 square feet of boiler absorb- 
ing surface. With hot water the proportion of boiler 
absorbing surface to radiating surface in rooms is about 
1 square foot to 8 or 10 square feet or even more. 

Q. 6. The size of the boiler settled, what is the next 
step ? What proportions are best between the main sup- 
ply and return pipes and the radiating surfaces for direct 
steam heating, also for the risers and the connections be- 
tween the mains and radiators ? What proportions in 
indirect steam or hot water ? 

A. After the proportions of the boiler are deter- 
mined, the next things to be considered are the sizes of 
the main supply and return pipes. A rule which some 
follow is to make the size of the low pressure steam main 
at the boiler from 0.78 square inch to 1 square inch of 
area for every 100 square feet of surface in the heating 
system and to run the steam with as few reductions as may 
be possible, and use eccentric reducers as far as practicable. 
The proportions should be carried out very full with due 
regard to the amount of surface called for at the furthest 
point, so as to maintain, as near as possible, the full 
boiler pressure at the end. The main return should start 
about one size less than the steam at the extreme point and 
be gradually increased in size to the boiler. In small sys- 
tems the return is one size smaller than the steam 
main near the boiler, and in larger ones two sizes, or even 
less, at the same point. Under some circumstances it 
is best to run two or more separate returns, each with 



136 STEAM AND HOT WATER 

its own globe or check valves, and unite them near the 
boiler or enter it separately. 

The sizes of the mains for hot water should be larger 
than for low pressure steam, and both the main supply 
and the returns should be of the same size. The reduc- 
tions in the branches should be less, and both the branches 
and risers should be large in proportion. In the smaller 
pipes, for any system, ample allowances must be made for 
friction. For low pressure steam some designers use 
certain proportions of sectional areas of pipe.-^ lor every 
square foot of heating surface they supply, but no risers 
should be less than 1-inch or 13^ inch. For the riser, 0.006 
square inch to 1 square foot; for the branches from the 
riser to main, 0. 009 square inch ; for the branches between 
the risers and radiators, 0.012 square inch. For connect- 
ing pipes betweea the steam supply pipes to the coils, 
when used with a fan blower, there should be 0.021 square 
inch for each lineal foot of 1-inch pipe or equivalent, 
assuming that the amount of condensation is fully three 
times as much in the fan blower system as it is in the 
ordinary indirect natural draft system. For hot water an 
increase in this is required. 

For steam : 

30 square feet in radiator, a 1-inch steam supply 

50 square feet in radiator, a 13^-inch steam supply 

80 square feet in radiator, a IJ^-inch steam supply 

Returns, one size less. 

Hot water and single pipe connections one size larger. 
It is impossible to give exact figures, as judgment and 
experience must direct ; these are only starting points. 



FITTERS' TEXT BOOK. 127 

CHAPTER XIV. 

DWELLING HOUSE HEATING. 

So much has been done within a few years to popularize 
the use of steam, hot water, and a combination of both, 
for heating and ventilating private dwellings, and so 
many of those who conduct business in small towns or 
villages are called upon to repair or install such work, 
that it is necessary that they should be well instructed in 
the principles involved and in the practice of erecting and 
operating this sort of apparatus. When properly con- 
structed and erected there ought not to be the lenst 
trouble in the working. Unfortunately, however, there are 
many who have not had the advantages of a proper train- 
ing in such work and must buy their experience at their own 
and others' expense, which often proves very dear to both. 
The selection of the style of apparatus, whether direct, 
indirect, direct-indirect, or a combination of two or all 
of them, is of the highest importance and should be intelli- 
gently considered, for it depends upon the construction, 
form and style of the house, its uses and general plan, the 
materials of which it is built, its location, surroundings, 
and the wishes and peculiarities of its future owners and 
occupants. True, it may be said, on general principles, if 
it is judiciously designed and works well it ought to suit 
every one, but this in practice is not so, and most archi- 
tects and builders would rather design and erect several 
buildings to be used for business purposes than one private 
residence. In the one case men alone are to be dealt 
with; in the other, women, and all their fancies must be 
met and satisfied. 

The Qrst object in designing a heating apparatus for a 
dwelling is ample heat at all times and under all circum- 



128 STEAM AND HOT WATER 

stances, all parts of the house to be of even tempera- 
ture, without drafts (which are caused by differences in 
temperature), and a constant and regular change of the 
air in the various rooms. The amount of air sent to each 
room ought to be controllable in quantity and tempera- 
ture, as living rooms and those generally occupied by the 
family and guests sometimes require more fresh air and 
less heat, or the reverse, than those used for sleeping pur- 
poses or which are only occupied by a few. Where the 
family is large or much given to entertaining the regula- 
tion of the amount of heat and air supplied is very impor- 
tant. Some will say, "This extreme nicety of adjust- 
ment is seldom necessary ; just put in an abundance of 
everything and all x^^ill go right," but the day for such 
slipshod work is rapidly passing away. 

Engineering skill should aim to furnish enough, neither 
too much nor too little, efficiency with economy. Owners 
will soon learn that intelligent competition in this line is 
as important as in architectural designs. He who gives 
most for the money spent is the right man to employ, or 
he who gives what is necessary or desirable for the least 
money. In order to properly design such an apparatus a 
man should be thoroughly trained in the work, both prac- 
tically and theoretically; in fact, should, if possible, have 
lived in a house so arranged, and then he will know where 
the weak points are. If the comfort provided in their 
homes is one of the best evidences of the highest order of 
civilization among people, then this country should rank 
among the highest, if not in itself the highest on earth, 
for in no other country are the greatest of necessities, 
heat, light or even ventilation, better provided for than 
here. 

Among the first modes of utilizing heat in a dwelling 
house was a brazier or open furnace in the center of the 
house, next an open fire place and chimney, then stoves, 
then hot air furnaces in the cellar, then hot water in pipes, 



FITTERS' TEXT BOOK. 129 

then low pressure steam in pipes and radiators, direct and 
indirect, and now by a combination of steam and hot water 
with a hot air furnace, or modifications of all these. In 
all, the object has been to utilize the heat generated by 
the combustion of different kinds of fuel— charcoal, wood, 
bituminous or anthracite coal, and now we have come to 
gas, natural or artificial. The most difficult point to at- 
tain by many of them has been to advantageously apply 
the heat where it would do the most good. When limited 
to a single center of heat it radiated from that point; with 
the open fire place the number of points was then in 
creased. The trouble with the hot air f arnace was, and is 
often now, the excessive dryness and overheating of the 
air, also the deleterious gases mingled with it. The last 
trouble has been obviated to a considerable extent, but 
the first still exists. 

The advantage claimed for hot water is, it is easily 
managed, a very important matter, and maintains a very 
even temperature in the house, etc. The disadvantages 
are that it requires some time to cool after the radiator 
is turned off, and is slow in heating up at first, and is 
liable to freeze up and cause much damage The first 
cost is also large. Low pressure steam, it is claimed, is 
quicker in heating up and also quicker in cooling, is more 
controllable and is fully as safe. First cost is less, and 
the economy in running fully as great or even greater. 
Both are adapted to all systems of heating. The com- 
bination system of hot air furnace with steam or hot 
water is often a great aid to the furnace system, for as the 
furnace sends the heated air from a central point only, it 
is found very difficult to secure proper distribution. With 
the aid of steam or hot water this can be dune, but with 
some disadvantage in loss of simplicity, which has always 
been a strong point in favor of the furnace. The question 
arises, however, is the gain greater in the aggregate than 
the loss, or sufficient to warrant tbe increased expendi- 



130 STEAM AND HOT WATER 

tore ? It is at best a hybrid, though perhaps no more so 
than any indirect and direct combined steam or hot water 
apparatus. It is, when all is said, a valuable arrangement 
in certain cases. 

In every hot air apparatus, no matter how arranged, 
the actuating power for moving the air is heat, which is 
not very reliable or forceful as applied. The assistance 
of a power fan, however small, would greatly aid in obvi- 
ating all difficulties, both for the hot air furnace and the 
steam and hot water indirect. This accelerator would 
make the circulation positive and prompt, and by the 
more rapid conduction of heat and the great reduction 
in the amount of radiating surface required gave a 
large part of the cost of the power used. 

Foreigners often complain of the excessive heat in our 
houses in the winter. This is to a certain extent true, and 
there is much that can justly be said about the excessive 
dryness of the air and want of frequent change by ventila- 
tion, but this is being gradually improved. When one has, 
however, experienced the discomforts, to say the least, of 
the almost entire absence of heat in the hnn-es in such 
great cities as Paris. London, Berlin and Vienna in zero 
weather, and seen the crude means they still use for heat- 
ing purposes, it makes us feel that in this line of progress 
we are, as in many other lines, far ahead of the rest of the 
world. 

In England the open fire place is still in vogue, with 
plenty of smoky coal ; this has the advantage of some ven- 
tilation, but as the heat radiates from one central point 
only, the rest of the room to be heated has almost every 
degree of temperature from the torrid to the frigid zone. 

In France, coal being scarce and high, the charcoal 
brazier is still in some nze, and a coal fire is a luxury. In 
Germany, Ru?sia and Austria the air tight stove is chiefly 
used. With this apparatus ventilation is ignored, and to 
secure economy in heat every crevice and crack is stopped 



FITTERS' TEXT BOOK. 131 

up, SO there is either an absence of the proper amount of 
heat for comfort or no ventilation. The best form of 
heating apparatus for dwelling houses is a difficult ques- 
tion to decide. It must depend largely on circum- 
stances, but in a general way it may be said that a com- 
bination of Indirect for the first floor, or even the second 
floor, and direct for the other floors and the off corners 
hard to reach by hot air pipes, is best. The circulation of 
the air through the indirect radiators may be aided by an 
accelerator or fan driven by a small electric, gas, oil. 
gasoline, water or other motor capable of being regulated 
by hand or automatically. 



132 STEAM AND HOT WATER 

CHAPTER XV. 

A SUCCESSFUL HEATING JOB.* 

Knowing the interest that always attaches to actual 
work which has been done as compared with work that 
has only been done on paper, we reprint below a complete 
spacification for a steam heating job in a Brooklyn resi- 
dence, giving all the particulars of the specification as 
well as of the agreement, naming the articles specified and 
giving the prices of all. The only change that we have 
made is in the names of the owner and contractor, the 
latter being one of the most prominent heating contract- 
ing firms in New York City. The specification was care- 
fully drawn up and the operation of the apparatus, we 
understand, has been entirely successful. As an example 
of practical work we believe it will interest many of oar 
readers. The engravings were made from the plans fur- 
nished by the architect. 

specification 

for a low pressure steam heating apparatus for a residence 
on Diamond street, near Bedford avenue, Brooklyn 
Mr. G. M Lawtox, Architect, 
No. 508 Madison ave.. 
Brooklyn, N. Y. 
WorJcmanship, — The entire work to be executed in the 
neatest and best manner and in strict accordance with 
the rules of the New York Board of Fire Underwriters. 
Where steam pipes pass through floors or partitions they 
must be covered with heavy galvanized iron tubes with 
flanges on each end, floor and ceiliu;? plates, &c. 

Material. — All materials to be the best of their several 
kinds, the fittings of heavy pattern and the pipe the best 

* Reprinted from The Metal Worker, July 27, 1895, with additions 
showing the method of calculating the surface. This work was de- 
signed and supervised in its execution by Mr. McNeill. 



fitters" text book. 133 

made. Eccentric fittings to be used on steam main in 
cellar and on all horizontal branches to radiators. 

Valves. — All valves to be of Fairbank's make, with 
composition disk seats. Bodies and trimmings to be of best 
steam metal, heavy pattern. Radiator v^alves to be nickel 
plated, to have neat polished hardwood handle, and to be 
either angle, opposite angle or gate valv^es; no globe valve 
to be used except on main return in cellar. Each radiatoi 
on first story to have two (2) valves, for steam and return, 
IJi^-inch and 1-inch respectively. Radiators above first 
story to have only one valve each, the same to be l}4-inch. 
All cocks to be of best steam metal ground tight. 

Cutting, etc.— All cutting, excavating and repairing 
found necessary in the esecution of the work to be done 
by contractor, and all rubbish promptly removed from the 
premises. 

Testing. —The entire apparatus to be thoroughly tested 
with 30 pounds per square inch steam pressure, made 
tight and absolutely noiseless in working under varied 
pressures. A guarantee to be given against defects of 
workmanship and material for one year from date of ac- 
ceptance of work. 

System. — Steam at low pressure (not to exceed 10 
pounds per square inch) s:enerated by boiler in cellar and 
by suitable piping supplied to vertical loop direct radia- 
tors placed in the various rooms throughout the building. 
The water of condensation to be noiselessly returned by 
gravity to the boiler. The system of piping in the cellar 
will comprise steam and return mains, and the radiators 
on the first floor will be supplied directly from said mains. 
The radiators above the first floor will be supplied by risers, 
each of one pipe and carrying both steam and return 
water. Run mains in cellar without traps or pockets, 
with ample mclination in the direction of the flow of their 
contents, and near to and supported from the beams in 
cellar ceiling by neat expansion hangers. 

Boiler. — Furnish and set in position shown on plans, on 
proper foundations, a Gorton steam boiler, size No. 1, of 
latest pattern, together with all parts and appliances 
necessary or desirable for operating the same. Connect 
boiler to smoke flue (marked B) by a smoke pipe 7 inches 
in diameter, made of No. 16 galvanized iron, and with 
damper rod and lever complete. 

Trimmings — Furnish and attach to boiler the follow- 
ing trimmings, etc. : Low pressure steam gauge with 



134 



STEAM AND HOT WATER 




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Cellar Flan 



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FITTERS' TEXT BOOK. 

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First-Floor Plan. 



STEAM AND HOT WATER 




Second-Floor Plan, 



fitters' text book. 



137 



siphon; water column with three J^inch brass gauge 
cocks and a 12 inch water gauge with brass trimmiDgs ; 
low pressure safety valve, 134 -inch; regulating bowl with 




STORE ROOM 

7 lOX 9 2>^ 




1 I"! 




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Attic Plan. 



connection to ash pit door and damper in smoke pipe : blow 
off cock II4; inch connected to sewer; and approved auto- 
matic water feeder with hand feed and all necessary cocks ; 
a 2-inch swing check valve and a 2-inch globe valve on 



138 STEAM AND HOT WATER 

main return, and a J^'inch pass^by to sewer with cock. 
Also furnish a full set of fire tools and a tube brush with 
jointed rod or cable. 

Mains.— R-an out from the two openings in the top of 
boiler for steam outlet two (2) IJ^-incb pipes, which unite 
into one 23^ inch and continue m the direction and of the 
sizes shown on plans ; also make all branch connections to 
risers on first floor. Run return mains, branches, etc., of 
the sizes and in the directions as shown on plans. Make 
connection to bottoms of risers, to radiators on first floors 
and to boiler below water line in cellar, as shown. 

Risers.— Run up from cellar to top story three (3) 
risers, each of one 1 34 inch pipe, with connections to ra- 
diators. 

Radiators. — Furnish and connect complete ia positions 
shown on plans ten (10) radiators containing in the aggre- 
gate 119 Bundy loops. Of these 77 to be 36 inches high 
and 42 to be 24 inches high. Total, 315 square feet of 
surface. 

Air FaZves.— Furnish and attach to each radiator a 
Van Auken duplex automatic air valve, nickel plated, 
with drip pipe and a ^ inch pipe run down to cellar. 

Bronzing, etc. — All pipes, etc, in cellar to be neatly 
black japanned. All radiators, risers, etc., above cellar 
to be neatly gold or silver bronzed. 

Articles of Agreement 

made this ninth day of July, in the year one thousand 
eight hundred and ninety-four, between William Brown of 
the first part, and the Jones & Robinson Company of the 
second part, in these words : 

The said parties of the second part do hereby covenant, 
promise and agree, to and with the said party of the first 
part, that thev, the said parties of the second part, shall 
and will, for the consideration hereinafter mentioned, well 
and sufficiently provide all steam heating materials, and 
perform all steam heating work, or other materials or 
work required by the steam heating specification hereto 
annexed, and also to complete the same on or before the 
fifteenth day of September, 1894, or as soon as the condi- 
tion of the building will permit. 

And the said party of the first part does hereby cove 
nant, promise and agree, to and with the said parties of 
the second part, that he, the said party of the first part, 
shall and will, in consideration of the covenants and agree 
ments being strictly performed and kept by the said par- 



fitters' text book. 139 

ties of the second part, pay unto the said parties of the 
second part the sum of three hundred and eighty- five dol- 
lars (?385) of lawful money, in manner following: 

First. — The sum of Si 00 when all the rising lines are in. 

Second.— The sum of $150 when the boiler and all the 
radiators are delivered. 

Third. — The sum of $135, the balance of the contract 
price, when all the work contracted for is fully completed. 

Provided, The said parties of the second part obtain 
from John Smith, the superintending architect of the 
work^, a written certificate, to the effect that the specifica- 
tion has been complied with, and the work done to his 
satisfaction and acceptance. And should any dispute arise 
respecting the construction or meaning of the drawings or 
specification, the same shall be decided by the said archi- 
tect. 

And it is hereby further agreed by and between the said 
parlies : 

First, — The owner may, at any time during the prog 
ress of the work, make any desired alteration in the said 
contract, either by work added thereto, or omitted there- 
from, and the same shall in no way affect or make void 
the contract, but will be added to or deducted from the 
amount of the contract, as the case may be, by a f^ir and 
reasonable valuation. 

^Second. —Should the contractor, at any time duricg the 
progress of the vrork, refuse or neglect to advance the 
same consistent with its completion by the time herein 
specified, or so as to delay or retard other divisions of the 
work, the owner shall have the power to provide the labor 
and material necessary to finish the said works, after three 
days' notice in writing being given, to finish the said 
works, and the contractor shall be chargeable with the ex- 
pense, and be liable for any excess over the contract price. 

Witness our hands and seals, the day and year first 
above written. 

Wm. Brown. [seal.] 

The Jones & Robinson Co, [seal.] 

CAIiCXJIiATIONS 

for a low pressure steam heating" apparatus for a residence on 
Diamond street, near Bedford avenue, Brooklyn, N. Y. 

Owner. 

Geo. M. Lawton Architect 



140 STEAM AND HOT WATER 



Cellar.— Hight, 7 feet 4 inches, floor to ceiling : 
Two-pipe system on the first floor ai 
system on the floors above. 

First floor.— Hight, 10 feet, floor to ceiling : 



Two-pipe system on the first floor and in cellar, and one-pipe 
system on the floors above. 



Cubic Square 
Ratio, contents, feet. Pipe. 

Parlor: 15 feet 6 inches x 16 feet 53 48 

6 inches X 10 feet 50 3,557 51 24 

One Bundy, 3 x 8 — 24 pipes, 24 inches high. 

Dining room: 12 feet x 16 feet 57 36 

6 inches X 10 feet 60 2,062 34 18 

One Bundy radiator, 2 x 9 = 18 pipes, 24 inches high. 

Main ball : 11 feet 10 inches x 12 feet 23 60 

xlOfeet 25 1,419 57 20 

One Bundy, 2 x 10 = 20 pipes, 36 inches high. 

Second floor.— Hight, 9 feet 6 inches, floor to ceiling : 

Chamber, front : 13 feet 6 inches x 55 36 

15 feet 6 inches X 9 feet 6 inches. . . 55 1,987 36 12 

One Bund.^, 2 x 6 =: 12 pipes, 36 inches high. 

Chamber, rear : 12 feet 6 inches x 60 33 

16 feet 6 inches X 9 feet 6 inches. . . 60 1,959 32 11 

One Bundy, 1 x 11 = 11 pipes, 33 inches high. 

Guest chamber : 12 feet 6 inches x 60 33 

16 feet 10 inches X 9 feet 6 inches.. 60 1,998 33 11 
One Bundy, 1 x 11 = 11 pipes, 36 inches high. 

Bathroom : 6 feet 10 inches x 7 feet 57 9 

10 inches X 9 feet 6 inches 55 518 9 3 

One Bundy, 1x3 = 3 pipes, 36 inches high. 

Attic— Hight, 9 feet, floor to ceiling : 

Guest chamber: 12 feet 3 inches x 76 24 

16 feet 10 inches X 9 feet 76 1,846 24 8 

1 Bundy, 1 x 8 == 8 pipes, 36 inches high. 

Servant's room : 9 feet 3 incbes x 77 18 

16 feet 10 inches X 9 feet 80 1,401 17 6 

One Bundy, 1x6 = 6 pipes, 36 inches high. 

Chamber, rear: 12 feet 6 inches x 83 18 

13 feet 3 inches X 9 feet 80 1,490 18 6 

One Bundy, 1x6 = 6 pipes, 36 inches high. 

The double figures shown in the " ratio " and "square feet " col- 
umns illustrate the difference which is sometimes necessary in the 
amount called for and the amount actually put in, caused by the 
inability to obtain the exact amount of surface in the radiators 
made and on the market. 

[THE END.] 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 

021 218 292 8 



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^■::'ry!:mi<ii^m 




